INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR LEGAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION AND OBSCENE AND INDECENT ADVERTISEMENTS AND DISPLAYS BY - RADHIKA DWIVEDI

Authors: RADHIKA DWIVEDI

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Year : Aug -2024 | Volume: II | Issue: 7

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ITS IMPACT ON ACCESS TO JUSTICE IN INDIA: INNOVATIONS, CHALLENGES, AND FUTURE PROSPECTS BY - DR KRITI SINGH

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PEDOPHILIA IN THE DIGITAL AGE; PROTECTING JUVENILES THROUGH LEGAL MEASURES BY – SAMRIDHI MISHRA

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THE ARMED FORCES SPECIAL POWERS ACT, 1958 – A CRITICAL ANALYSIS BY - AMRITPAL SINGH

Authors: AMRITPAL SINGH

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Year : Aug -2024 | Volume: II | Issue: 7

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SECTION 498A IPC – AMMUNITION TO WOMEN OR INSULT OF LEGISATURE? BY - BHOOMI JAIN

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UNREGULATED MIGRATION FROM INDIA: LEGAL CHALLENGES AND POLICY RESPONSES BY – YAMINI PATEL

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INTER-RELIGION HATE SPEECH: A CRITICAL SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS BY - DR. S. KRISHNAN & MS. ANKITA VERMA

Authors: DR. S. KRISHNAN & MS. ANKITA VERMA

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FRANCHISEE AGREEMENT: AN ANALYSES BY - DEEP KAPADIA

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AI-DRIVEN COMPLIANCE: THE FUTURE OF DATA PROTECTION BY - VARUNENDRA OJHA & AYUSHI DWIVEDI

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EXPLORING ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION: THE PRACTICE OF FORUM SHOPPING BY - HANSIKA GUPTA

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IJLRA	N. Raj Kumar ; Kamble Shivadayal . "Design of Fault Tolerance Parallel FFT’s Using Xilinx 14.5v" Iconic Research And Engineering Journals Volume 5 Issue 8 2022 Page 1-6
IEEE	N. Raj Kumar ; Kamble Shivadayal . "Design of Fault Tolerance Parallel FFT’s Using Xilinx 14.5v" Iconic Research And Engineering Journals, 5(8)

[7] Kumar, A. Freedom of Speech and Expression [Article 19(1)(a)] - Indian Polity. Retrieved August 16, 2022, from https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/freedom-of-speech/

[8] Kumar, A. Freedom of Speech and Expression [Article 19(1)(a)] - Indian Polity . Retrieved August 16, 2022, from https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/freedom-of-speech/

[1] The Bengal Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 11 of 1947); the Assam Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 14 of 1947); the East Punjab and Delhi Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 22 of 1947), and the united Provinces Disturbed Areas (Special Powers of Armed Forces) Ordinance, 1947 (Act 22 of 1947).

[3] Suvrokamal Dutta, “On the Issue of Repeal of AFSPA”, Mainstream 19 (2006).

[4] S.G.Vombatkere, “Armed Forces Special Powers Act Governance by Ballot or Bullet”, Mainstream,

December 21 (2006).

[6] Section 3, the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958.

[8] Lt. Gen. Harwant Singh (retd), “Withdrawing AFSPA: It Will Affect Army’s Functioning in J&K”, the Tribune, November 3, 2011 p.6.

[10] A.K Gopalan v. State of Madras, AIR 1950 SC 27

[12] Available at: http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/resources/armed forces.htm>accessed on 12.12.2011.

[13] S. Bhaumik, “India targets North-east Rebels,” BBC News 29th Oct 1995 as available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south asia/43881 accessed on 2.12.2011.

[14] M.P. Jain, Indian Constitutional Law, 6th edn., 98 (1998).

[16] Code of Conduct for law enforcement Officials adopted by General Assembly Resolution 34/169 of 17 Dec, 1979, available at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/codeofconduct.htm accessed on 21.12.2011.

[17] Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee: India, Report of the Human Rights Committee, UN Doc. A/52/40 (1997), p 434.

[18] South Asia Human Rights Documentation Centre. “Armed Forces Special Powers Act- A study in National Security tyranny:” 93 (1995).

[21] Nandita Haksar, Submission to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Human Rights Committee: Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958: A report on Human Rights Violations in North East India (New York, 1991) available at www.amnesty.org accessed on 20.04.2011.

[22] A. v. Australia, Communication No. 560/1993, UN Doc. CCPR/C/59/D/560/1993 (30 April 1997), para. 9.2.

[23] Naga People's Movement of Human rights v. Union of India, AIR 1998 SC 431.

[25] All human being are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

[26] Everyone is entitled to all rights and freedoms set forth in this declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it is independent, trust, non-self governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

[27] Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of persons.

[28] No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

[29] All are equal before the law and entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

[30] Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the component national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the Constitution or by law.

[31] No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest detention or exile.

[32] Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life.

[34] Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 6: The right to life, art. 6 (sixteenth session, treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI\GEN\1\Rev. 1 at 6 (1994, para.1).

[36] Principle 4 of the UN basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials (UN Basic Principles), adopted by the Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, Cuba, 27 August to 7 September 1990.

[37] Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 34/169 of 17 December 1979, Article 3

[38] Any State party to the present Covenant availing itself of the right of the right of derogation shall immediately inform the other State parties to the present Covenant, through the intermediary of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, of the provisions from which it has derogated and of the reasons by which it was actuated. A further communication shall be made, through the same intermediary, on the date on which it terminates such derogation.

[42] The Jeevan Committee Report, Ministry of Home Affairs 73 (2005).

[43] Available at: http:// www.hindu.com/nic/afa/afa-part-i.pdf (accessed on Dec. 10, 2011).

[44] Second Administrative Reforms Commission, Government of India, 5th Report 235 (2007).

[45] Available at http:// corecommittee.cgg.gov.in/pdf2/public_order5.pdf (accessed on Jan. 5, 2012).

[2] Government of India, “Report of the Committee on Reforms of Criminal Justice System” (Ministry of Home Affairs, 2003).

[4] Ministry of Home Affairs “National Crime Record Bureau Report 2020 on Crimes in India 2020”

[10] Law Commission of India “243 Report on Section 498A IPC (August 2012)”

[1] Amit Singh, “Conflict between Freedom of Expression and Religion in India – A Case Study”, Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, 29^th June, 2018.

[2] Alexander Tsesis, Destructive Messages: How Hate Speech Paves the Way for Harmful Social Movements (New York, NY: New York University Press, 2002); Bhikhu Parekh, ‘Hate Speech: Is There a Case for Banning?’, Public Policy Research 12 (2005-2006): 213–223; Steven J. Heyman, Free Speech and Human Dignity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008); Alexander Brown, Hate Speech Law: A Philosophical Examination (London: Routledge, 2015).

[3] Miklos Haraszti, ‘Forward’, in M. Herz and P. Molnar (eds.) The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Martha C. Nussbaum, ‘Law for Bad Behavior’, The Indian Express, February 21, 2014. Available at http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/law-for-bad-behaviour/.

[4] C. Edwin Baker, ‘Hate Speech’, in M. Herz and P. Molnar (eds.) The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Ronald Dworkin, ‘Reply to Jeremy Waldron’, in M. Herz and P. Molnar (eds.) The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Robert Post, ‘Interview’, in M. Herz and P. Molnar (eds.) The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Nadine Strossen, ‘Interview’, in M. Herz and P. Molnar (eds.) The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Eric Heinze, Hate Speech and Democratic Citizenship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

[5] Robert Post, ‘Hate Speech’, in I. Hare and J. Weinstein (eds.) Extreme Speech and Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); James Weinstein, ‘Hate Speech Bans, Democracy and Political Legitimacy’, Constitutional Commentary, forthcoming

[6] South Park, Season 9, Episode 11, aired on Comedy Central US, November 9, 2005.

[7] Adam Howard, “Beyoncé Super Bowl Performance Inspires Protest, Counter-protest”, NBC News Online, February 10, 2016. Available at http://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/beyonc-super-bowlperformance-inspires-protest-counter-protest-n515996.

[8] J. K. Rowling, @jk_rowling, Twitter, November 8, 2016. Available at https://twitter.com/jk_ rowling/status/796252371739430913.

[9] David Riesman, “Democracy and Defamation: Control of Group Libel”, Columbia Law Review 42 (1942): 727–780, p. 728.

[10] Lionel Casson, Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt, Revised and Expanded Edition (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), pp. 58–59.

[11] Samuel Walker, Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), p. 8.

[12] David Boromisza-Habashi, Speaking Hatefully: Culture, Communication, and Political Action in Hungary (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2013), pp. 35–36; Gagliardone et al., Mapping and Analysing Hate Speech Online, p. 9.

[13] Cited in Elmer Sandmeyer, The Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1973), p. 65.

[14] Friedrich Kiibler, “How Much Freedom for Racist Speech? Transnational Aspects of a Conflict of Human Rights”, 27 Hofstra L. Rev. 335,336 (1998).

[15] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature Dec. 16, 1966, art. 20(2), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, S. EXEC. DOC. E, 95-2 (1978) (entered into force Mar. 23, 1976) (stating that "[a]ny advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law").

[16] Friedrich Kiibler, How Much Freedom for Racist Speech? Transnational Aspects of a Conflict of Human Rights, 27 Hofstra L. Rev. 335,336 (1998).

[17] Beauhamais v. Illinois, 343 U.S. 250 (1952) (upholding the constitutionality of a statue criminalizing group defamation based on race or religion). Although Beauhamais has never been formally repudiated by the Supreme Court, it is fundamentally inconsistent with more recent decisions on the subject.

[18] Anthony SkiUen, “Freedom of Speech”, Contemporary Political Philosophy: Radical Studies, 139,142 (Keith Graham ed., 1982).

[19] The identity of the audience involved may be relevant for a variety of reasons, including assessing the harm produced by hate speech, and devising effective legal means to combat hate speech. For example, demeaning racist propaganda aimed at a non-target audience may be a necessary step in the creation of a political environment wherein policies of genocide might plausibly be implemented. See generally GORDON W. ALLPORT, THE NATURE OF PREJUDICE (1954). Thus, the German people might never have countenanced the Nazi policy of extermination of the Jews, had they not been desensitized through years of vicious anti-Semitic propaganda. See FRANKLYN S. HAIMAN, SPEECH AND LAW IN A FREE SOCIETY 87 (1981). Consistent with this, hate speech directed at a non-target audience might well be much more dangerous than if exclusively addressed to a target-group audience.

[20] “Counting the Jews”, NATION, Oct. 3,1988, at 257.

[21] Because of prevailing social and economic circumstances, it has often been the case that the whites with whom black ghetto dwellers have the most—often unpleasant— contacts, namely shopkeepers and landlords, happen to be Jews. See Vince Beiser, “Surviving The Rage in Harlem”, JERUSALEM REP., Feb. 8,1996, at 30.

[22] Schenk v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919).

[23] PTI. (2016, June 08). Freedom of speech and religion enshrined in constitution: PM Modi. Available at http://economictimes.indiatimes. com/news/politics-and-nation/freedom-of-speech-and-religion-enshrined-inconstitution-pm-modi/articleshow/52661254.cms.

[24] IANS Feeds. (2017, March 21). Police complaint against Bengali poet for hurting ‘Hindu beliefs’. Available at http://www.india.com/ news/agencies/police-complaint-against-bengali-poet-for-hurting-hindubeliefs-1948253/.

[25] Bijo Abraham, Trends in Religion-based Hate Speech, Digital Empowerment Foundation, 2017.

[26] Times News Network. (2017, February 08). Fall in communal clashes in India, but UP more restive than before. Available at http://epaperbeta. timesofindia.com/Article.aspx?eid=31808&articlexml=Fall-in-communalclashes-in-India-but-UP-08022017014027.

[27] Bhattacharya, S., & Chaudhuri, S. R. (2017, July 16). Bengal violence over FB post: Man dies of stab wounds, clashes erupt in Basirhat. Available at http://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/hindu-mandies-in-west-bengal-violence-clashes-erupt-in-basirhat-again/storyO1j8VjMqPCdgSdCYQRyVVJ.html.

[28] Yamunan, S. (2017, July 14). Social media posts fan communal tensions already running high in coastal Karnataka. Available at https:// scroll.in/article/843308/social-media-posts-fan-communal-tensions-alreadyrunning-high-in-coastal-karnataka.

[29] Firstpost. (2016, October 13). Mumbai leather bag case: Barun Kashyap confesses to making false allegations against driver. Available at http://www.firstpost.com/india/barun-kashyap-made-wrong-allegationsagainst-auto-driver-to-spark-communal-unrest-in-mumbai-3048844.html.

[31] Tiwari, M. (2015, December 01). RSS volunteers are ‘homosexuals’, says Azam Khan - Times of India

[32] PNS. (2016, February 01). NSA against Tiwari: ABHM to challenge HC’s order. Available at http://www.dailypioneer.com/print. php?printFOR=storydetail&story_url_key=nsa-against-tiwari-abhm-tochallenge-hcs-order§ion_url_key=state-editions.

[33] Internet banned in Vadodara for three days. (2014, September 27). Available at http://deshgujarat.com/2014/09/27/internet-banned-invadodara-for-three-days/.

[34] Rai, M. (2016, June 21). BJP MP Yogi Adityanath accuses Mother Teresa of religious conversion. Available at http://economictimes. indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/bjp-mp-yogi-adityanath-accusesmother-teresa-of-religious-conversion/articleshow/52842431.cms.

[35] Alavi, A. M. (2017, May 30). BJP files police complaint against Prashant Bhushan for ‘insulting’ Lord Krishna. Available at http://www. hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/bjp-files-police-complaint-against-prashantbhushan-for-insulting-lord-krishna/story-M4irS5BFEqfi4LGlPWYbfK.html.

[36] Biswajeet. (2017, April 06). Tension in Odisha’s Bhadrak over offensive remarks on Lord Ram in social media. Available at http:// odishasuntimes.com/2017/04/06/tension-erupts-in-odishas-bhadrak-overoffensive-remark-on-lord-ram-in-social-media/.

[37] Express News Service. (2017, April 22). Varanasi: WhatsApp message lands teen in trouble. Available at http://indianexpress.com/article/ india/varanasi-whatsapp-message-lands-teen-in-trouble-4623187/.

[38] IANS Feeds. (2017, March 21). Police complaint against Bengali poet for hurting ‘Hindu beliefs’. Available at http://www.india.com/ news/agencies/police-complaint-against-bengali-poet-for-hurting-hindubeliefs-1948253/

[39] Mehta, P. (2016, September 21). Blogger arrested in India’s Bengal for criticising Islam on social media. Available at https://www. wionews.com/south-asia/blogger-arrested-in-indias-bengal-for-criticisingislam-on-social-media-6588.

[40] Shenoy, J. (2015, March 4). City Police arrest Bengaluru based former telecom executive for hate comments - Times of India. Available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mangaluru/City-Policearrest-Bengaluru-based-former-telecom-executive-for-hate-comments/ articleshow/46459003.cms.

[41] PTI. (2014, September 24). Muslim cleric Mehadi Hasan slapped for calling Navratri a ‘festival of demons’. Available at http://zeenews.india. com/news/india/muslim-cleric-mehadi-hasan-slapped-for-calling-navratri-afestival-of-demons_1475045.html.

[42] BP Staff. (2013, August 31). Bangalore Writer arrested for blasphemous Book on Lord Ganesha. Available at http://news.biharprabha. com/2013/08/bangalore-writer-arrested-for-blasphemous-book-on-lordganesha/.

[43] PTI. (2012, November 19). Two Mumbai girls arrested for Facebook post against Bal Thackeray get bail. Available at http:// indiatoday.intoday.in/story/2-mumbai-girls-in-jail-for-tweet-against-balthackeray/1/229846.html.

[45] IANS. (2017, July 18). Arrest Sadhvi Saraswati for hate speech against beef-eaters: BJP’s Goa MLA. Available at http://www.firstpost.com/ politics/arrest-sadhvi-saraswati-for-hate-speech-against-beef-eaters-bjpsgoa-mla-3828081.html.

[46] The Wire Staff. (2017, April 10). Activist in Assam Threatened With Rape and Acid Attacks For Condemning Beef Arrests. Available at https://thewire.in/122670/bondita-acharya-beef-bajrang-dal/.

[47] “Video: Man burnt alive in Rajasthan’s Rajsamand after being axed for alleged love jihad”, FE Online, 7 December, 2017. Available at https://www.financial express.com/india-news/for-alleged-love-jihad-man-hacked-by-axeburnt-alive-in-rajasthan-caught-on-camera/964351/.

[48] The Times of India (TOI) describes the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, or VHP as a conservative Hindu nationalist organization that abides by the ideologies of Hindutva and is often characterized as “militant” for initiating anti-social activities like the Ram Janmabhoomi movement The Times of India (TOI) describes the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, or VHP as a conservative Hindu nationalist organization that abides by the ideologies of Hindutva and is often characterized as “militant” for initiating anti-social activities like the Ram Janmabhoomi movement.

[49] Pankul Sharma, “Trolled, abused, Bareilly DM takes down FB post, stands by his remarks ”, Times of India , 31^st January , 2018 . Available at https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bareilly/trolled-abusedbareilly-dm-takes-down-fb-post-stands-by-his-remarks/articleshow/ 62715214.cms.

[50] “Kasganj violence: Uttar Pradesh Police arrests 2 for circulating communal messages on WhatsApp”, Indo-Asian News Service, 6 February, 2018. Available at https://www.firstpost.com/india/kasganj-violence-uttar-pradeshpolice-arrests-2-for-circulating-communal-messages-on-whatsapp4338019.html.

[51] As enshrined in Articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Indian Constitution.

[52] Snigdhendu Bhattacharya, “Teen behind Facebook post that led to Basirhat clashes re-arrested, booked for attempt to murder”, Hindustan Times, 15 February, 2018. Available at https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/teenbehind-facebook-post-that-led-to-basirhat-clashes-re-arrested-bookedfor-attempt-to-murder/story-HDZpLtfMTSVOke6QoEsPdI.html.

[53] Koushik Dutta, “BJP IT cell secy held in Asansol for posting ‘fake’ video on social media”, Hindustan Times, 13 July, 2017. Available at https://www.hindustantimes.com/ kolkata/bjp-it-cell-secretary-arrested-in-asansol-for-posting-fakevideo-on-social-media/story-GSLBmA1746fQlk5YupJrgI.html.

[54] David Ingram, “Twitter bars tactics used by ‘bots’ to spread false stories”, Reuters, 22 February, 2018. Available at https://www.reuters.com/article/ustwitter-bots/twitter-bars-tactics-used-by-bots-to-spread-false-storiesidUSKCN1G52R1?utm_campaign=trueAnthem:+Trending+Content&u tm_content=5a8e530304d3013cdbbb1374&utm_medium=trueAnthe m&utm_source=twitter.

[55] Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic, “How the web distorts reality and impairs our judgement skills”, The Guardian, 13 May, 2014. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-network-blog/ 2014/may/13/internet-confirmation-bias.

[56] The United Kingdom proscribed ‘National Action’ a right wing, Neo-Nazi group as a terrorist outfit in December, 2016.

[57] Whitman, James Q. “Enforcing Civility and Respect: Three Societies”, Faculty Scholarship Series (2000), P. 646. Available at http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/ fss_papers/646/

[58] Amber Sinha, “New Recommendations to Regulate Online Hate Speech Could Pose More Problems Than Solutions”, The Wire, 14 October 2017. Available at https://thewire.in/187381/new-recommendations-regulate-onlinehate-speech-problems/.

[59] Rupa Subramanya, “Has India become “Lynchistan?”, ORF, 1 July, 2017. Available at https://www.orfonline.org/expert- speak/has-india-becomelynchistan/.

[60] Poppy McPherson, “ ‘We must protect our country’: extremist Buddhists target Mandalay’s Muslims”, The Guardian, 8 May, 2017. Available https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/may/08/buddhistextremists-anti-muslim-mandalay-ma-ba-tha.

[61] “Myanmar: New evidence reveals Rohingya armed group massacred scores in Rakhine State”, Amnesty International, 22 May, 2018. Available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/myanmar-newevidence-reveals-rohingya-armed-group-massacred-scores-in-rakhinestate/.

[62] Krishnadas Rajagopal, “‘Illegal’ Rohingya refugees pose security threat, Centre tells SC”, The Hindu, 18 September, 2017. Available at https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rohingya-refugees-illegalpose-security-threat-centre-tells-sc/article19708554.ece.

[63] Tom Miles, Simon Daniel Lewis and David Ingram, “U.N. investigators cite Facebook role in Myanmar crisis”, Reuters, 13 March, 2018. Available at https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-facebook/u-ninvestigators-cite-facebook-role-in-myanmar-crisis-idUSKCN 1GO2PN.

[64] Appadurai, Arjun, The Fear of Small Numbers, Duke University Press, 2006, pp.21-23.

[66] Sanjay Kumar, “The Rise of the Right Wing”, The Diplomat, 23 October, 2011. Available at https://thediplomat.com/2011/10/the-rise-of-the-right-wing/.

[67] Alok Singh, “Attack on Umar Khalid: Delhi Police detain duo who claimed responsibility”, The Indian Express, 20 August, 2018. Available at https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/attack-on-umar-khaliddelhi-police-jnu-5315070/.

[68] Khalid, along with nine others including former Students union (JNUSU) president Kanhaiya Kumar were expelled in 2016, after being accused of sedition for organising protests against what they called ‘judicial killings’ of Afzal Guru and Maqbool Bhat- the former found guilty in the terror attacks on India’s Parliament in December 2001, and the latter, a Kashmiri separatist leader who formed the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF). Bhat was hanged in 1984, Guru in 2013. Khalid has challenged his expulsion order in court.

[69] See Handyside v. United Kingdom, Application no. 5493/72(1976).

[70] J.S. Mill, On Liberty and Utilitarianism 4 (Bantam Classic, New York, 2008).

[71] New York Times v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964).

[72] William A. Schabas, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights : The Travaux Préparatoires (Volume I) lxxiii (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2013).

[73] Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, 17th Session, A/HRC/17/27 (May 16, 2011), available at : http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.27_en.pdf.

[75] Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, AIR 2015 SC 1523.

[78] Brandenburg v. Ohio 395 U.S. 44 (1969). The Appellant was convicted under an Illinois statute making it a crime to “Advertise or publish, present or exhibit in any public place ...any lithograph, moving picture, play, drama or sketch, which portrays ... depravity, criminality, unchastity, lack of virtue of a class of citizens, of any race, colour, creed or religion which said publication or exhibition exposes the citizens of any race, color, creed or religion to contempt, derision, or obloquy or which is productive of breach of peace or riots.”

[79] Police Dept. of City of Chicago v. Mosley, 408 U.S. 92 (1972)

[80] J. Weinstein, Hate Speech, Pornography and Radical Attack on Free Speech Doctrine 93 (Westview Press, Colorado, 1999).

[81] Incal v. Turkey, Application no. 41/1997/825/1031 (1998).

[85] See e.g. Bobby Art International v. Om Pal Singh Hoon, AIR 1996 SC 1846.

[86] For a recent account of the legislative debates leading to the enactment of section 295A; See Neeti Nair, Beyond the ‘Communal’ 1920s: The Problem of Intention, Communal Pragmatism, and the Making of Section 295A of the Indian Penal Code, 50 Indian Economic Social History Review 317 (2013) available at; http://ier.sagepub.com/content/50/3/317, DOI: 10.1177/0019464613494622.

[87] Peter Longerich, Goebbels: A Biography 212-213 (Random House, New York, 2015)

[93] Law Commission of India, 245th Report On Arrears And Backlog: Creating Additional Judicial (Wo)Manpower (July, 2014)

[94] United Nations Office On Drugs And Crime, Handbook On Restorative Justice Programmes (2006) available at : https://www.unodc.org/pdf/criminal_justice/Handbook_on_Restorative_Justice_Programmes.pdf

[97] Katharine Gelber, “Reconceptualizing Counter-speech in Hate- Speech Policy (with a focus on Australia) in Michael Herz, Peter Molnar (eds.), The Content and Context of Hate Speech : Rethinking Regulation and Responses (Cambridge University Press, 2012).

[98] Luke McNamara, Katharine Gelber, “Explainer : How do Australia’s laws on hate speech work in practice”, The Conversation, May 9, 2014. available at : https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-do-australias-lawson-hate-speech-work-in-practice-26105

[99] Katharine Gelber, Luke McNamara, “The Effects of Civil Hate Speech Laws : Lessons from Australia” 49(3) Law and Society Review 631-664 (2015).

[100] The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (Act 2 of 1974), s.196.

[1] In my last research paper on ‘Arbitration in Franchisee System’, published by IJLRA, p.49 have given details on dispute resolutions.

[2] It is very difficult to understand how the company law is exterpolated in determining the franchisee system

[3] Mentioned in my LLM dissertation at Mumbai university.

[1] McKinsey & Company. (2020). The AI-powered future of compliance.

[2] Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance. (2021). Leveraging NLP for improved compliance.

[3] Deloitte. (2022). Harnessing predictive analytics for compliance.

[4] PwC. (2021). AI in KYC: Enhancing compliance and customer experience.

[5] Journal of Medical Systems. (2022). AI and HIPAA compliance: Enhancing data protection in healthcare.

[6] Accenture. (2021). Enhancing Compliance with AI.

[7] IBM. (2020). AI-Driven Automation in Data Protection

[8] Deloitte. (2022). AI in Compliance: Reducing Human Error

[9] European Commission. (2021). Understanding the GDPR

[10] Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). (2023). India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act.

[11] California Department of Justice. (2021). California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA)

[12] European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS). (2021). Accountability in AI: Challenges and Legal Implications.

[13] Harvard Law School. (2022). Transparency and Accountability in AI Systems.

[14] World Economic Forum (WEF). (2022). Balancing Innovation and Data Protection in AI Development.

[15] Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF). (2020). Social Media Data Leaks and the Role of AI Mismanagement

[16] American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2021). Facial Recognition and Privacy Risks

[17] AI Now Institute. (2019). Discriminatory Bias in AI Algorithms.

[18] Privacy International. (2020). AI and the Erosion of Privacy.

[19] European Commission. (2020). Liability for AI-Induced Data Breaches.

[20] Stanford Law Review. (2021). Legal Precedents and AI Regulation.

[21] Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO). (2021). Privacy by Design in AI Systems.

[22] European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA). (2020). Explainability and Transparency in AI.

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[32] Gartner. (2022).The Rise of Predictive AI in Compliance Management.

[33] McKinsey & Company. (2021). AI and the Future of Regulatory Compliance.

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