IMPACT OF FORENSIC PATHOLOGY ON CHILD PROTECTION ISSUES BY - MR. KAPIL BHATI & DR. AVNISH SINGH

IMPACT OF FORENSIC PATHOLOGY ON CHILD PROTECTION ISSUES
 
AUTHORED BY - MR. KAPIL BHATI
Doctoral Research Scholar, School of Law,
Bennett University (The Times Group), Greater Noida, Delhi (NCR), India.
 
CO-AUTHOR - DR. AVNISH SINGH
Assistant Professor, School of Law,
Bennett University (The Times Group), Greater Noida, Delhi (NCR), India.
 
 
Abstract
Children are the most vulnerable members of society, facing various issues related to health, education, and child sexual abuse. Despite efforts to address these concerns, many cases go unreported and untreated. Forensic psychologists play a vital role in addressing child-related issues, particularly in cases of child sexual abuse. Their expertise is crucial in investigating these cases, providing intervention, and ensuring justice for victims. While there is a growing body of research on child sexual abuse, there is a need for more comprehensive studies on the role of forensic psychologists in addressing child-related issues. The role of forensic psychologists in child sexual abuse cases, child rights when testifying, and child custody and related issues. Study highlights the importance of forensic psychologists in investigating child sexual abuse cases, providing intervention, and ensuring justice for victims. It also emphasizes the need for protecting child rights when testifying and ensuring their best interests in child custody cases. Significant implications for policymakers, legal professionals, and mental health practitioners. It highlights the need for comprehensive policies and procedures to address child-related issues and ensure the protection and well-being of children.
 
Keywords: Forensic Psychology, Child Sexual Abuse, Child Rights, Child Custody, Mental Health, Justice, Vulnerable Populations.
 
 
 
1.     Introduction
Since the dawn of civilization, children have been the most vulnerable segments of society, suffering from a various issue. Many types of concerns connected to health, education, and child sexual abuse exist in society, but the majority of them are not reported or addressed. Child sexual abuse has been a worldwide occurrence since time immemorial. It is a challenging goal for good governance to safeguard the safety of children and to provide justice to victims of sexual assault. Many cases go unreported for a variety of socio-cultural and economic reasons. These are widespread difficulties that impact children of all ages, genders, nationalities, and socioeconomic backgrounds. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child establishes rules for promoting and protecting children's health, well-being, education, and safety around the world[1]. However, these difficulties raise significant concerns and continue to offer a prolonged threat to the legal system, sometimes going unreported[2].
 
To address the challenges of child related concerns, forensic psychologists play a vital role in establishing child-related protection systems. In this framework, the role of a forensic psychologist is to protect children from all societal evils, including criminality. Despite numerous goals to improve children's welfare, current government institutions have failed to address the different needs and concerns of children. A forensic psychologist could protect a substantial number of children from serious harm.
 
For example, in the case of a child, if the mother knows the father is a drug addict but is unable to prove it in court, a forensic psychologist could do this job very efficiently and effectively in a court of law, by testing, investigating, interviewing, carrying out case analysis, and so on, to prove to the court the child's father's addiction. The court also considers the report and the forensic psychologist's professional opinion. This article discusses the role of forensic psychologists in numerous child-related concerns. Will discuss the function of forensic psychologists in child sexual abuse cases, child rights when testifying, and child custody and related issues.
 
 
2.     Nature and Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse poses a global challenge before law enforcement apparatus, and most prevalent health problems having a serious array of consequences.  A total of 1,62,449 cases of crime against children were registered during year 2022, showing an increase of 8.7% over 2021.Statistics suggests that one in ten children suffers from sexual abuse before attaining the age of 18 years. About one in 7 girls and one among 25 boys have faced sexual exploitation before reaching to adulthood. Crimes against children during 2021 were kidnapping & Abduction (45.7%) and Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (39.7%) including Child Rape. Approximately 90% cases of CSA, the abusers were known to the survivors, 30% abusers were family members, and 60% children were abused by persons having the trust of child’s family. In India, 41% population were below 18 years in 2001. National Crime Record Bureau of India has reported that 445 million persons are below 18 years constituting nearly 31.8% of the total populace of India[3].
 
Statistics on child sexual abuse are varied since reporting is not very encouraging because of various compelling factors. During 2018, 39,827 cases were reported under the POCSO Act, 2012 with 8.9% annual increment comparing to the preceding year, constituting 34.7% of total crime against children. In 13587 cases, minor girls were kidnapped for compelled marriages [4].
 
3.     Child Sexual Abuse and Role of Forensic Psychologist
Forensic psychologist in the context of child sexual abuse. India has the world's highest number of child sexual assault cases. Every 155 minutes, a child under the age of 16 is raped, every 13 hours, a child under the age of 10, and one out of every ten children is sexually assaulted at any one moment. In 2019, there were 1,48,185 occurrences of crime against children, a 4.5% rise from the previous year (1,41,764). Kidnapping and Abduction (46.6%) and Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (35.3%), including child rape, were the two most common crime types under 'Crime Against Children' in 2019 [5]. Compared to 31.8 in 2018, the registered crime rate per lakh children is 33.2 in 2019. Since child sexual abuse is a severe issue, forensic psychologists may be able to help identify it and offer appropriate intervention.
 
There are differences among legal, clinical, and scientific definitions of child sexual abuse. The victimization of a young individual by peers of the same age is referred to as child sexual abuse in clinical and research contexts. However, this refers to sexual assault in legal sense. Similarly, from a therapeutic and scientific perspective, when an adult stranger or non-family member abuses a minor, it is deemed sexual abuse; nevertheless, from a legal perspective, it is regarded sexual assault.
 
Function of a forensic psychologist in this situation, let's examine what child sexual abuse is. Sexual activities between a minor and an adult (more than five years of age difference) are considered child sexual abuse. In this situation, the elder person controls, takes advantage of, or even coerces the younger person (kid or youth). Both exposure and touch, such sexual contact, can be involved. Genital exposure, voyeurism, exposing a child to pornographic content, and having a child undress or masturbate are examples of non-contact offenses. Oral sex, genital touching, and digital, object, or penile penetration (vaginal or anal) are examples of contact offenses[6].
 
According to the World Health Organization, child sexual abuse occurs when a child engages in sexual activity that they do not fully understand, cannot consent to because they are not yet developmentally ready, or that contravenes social norms or legal requirements[7].
 
In response to child sexual abuse, the Indian government has implemented a number of legal measures and passed a special law known as the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act 2012, which is a comprehensive law that protects children from sexual assault, sexual harassment, and pornography. Despite all of this, child sexual abuse still occurs.
 
All racial, cultural, and ethnic groups, castes, classes, and financial levels are affected by sexual abuse. Many of these child abuse cases are identified by the child's own account and reporting, physical and medical proof, and changes in the youngster's behavior and emotions. Documenting abuse and catching and punishing the offenders are made easier with the use of forensic interviews.
 Sexual abuse can have different effects on different children. Both internalizing and externalizing symptoms are possible. The latter encompasses delinquency, substance misuse, inappropriate sexual behavior, and so on, whereas the former covers sadness, anxiety, and so forth. Some people could have severe symptoms and need medical attention.
 
3.1.Child Rights as Framework for School Psychology
A common dedication to advancing and protecting children's rights via advocacy and practice is demonstrated by professional standards and adherence to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. However, the standards' vagueness about children's rights is restrictive comprehension and application. To properly comprehend the significance of child rights in school psychology, more specific guidelines are required[8].
 
A forensic psychologist's function in relation to child sexual abuse. Standards may need to be updated to incorporate more precise references and concerns pertaining to the articles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in order to better conform to it. The Convention on the Rights of the Child can also serve as a guide for school psychologists' professional development, research, practice, and ethical decisions. Professional standards can be understood and applied with guidance from the convention on the Rights of the Child.
 
When someone is accused of committing a crime against a child, a forensic psychologist conducts a comprehensive investigation that includes background checks, testing, interviews, and more. To learn the child's account of the sexual assault and the emotional disturbance they are experiencing, they also perform a thorough interview employing play, sketching, painting, the anatomic doll, cognitive questioning, etc. All of the information gathered is carefully examined, and the court is given the expert's (forensic psychologist's) viewpoint. If found guilty, the offender is punished by the prosecuting attorney. Otherwise, they might also be cleared[9].
 
Furthermore, externalizing issues like self-abusive behaviors exist. Additionally, some kids abuse drugs and become delinquents. In addition to focusing more on their bodily parts and feeling self-conscious about them, most kids struggle in school, have trouble focusing, and have interpersonal interaction issues. Many kids also have a strong interest in sex, engage in more sexual activities, play sexually too soon, and even act out sexually toward peers and adults.
 
Anxiety, sadness, suicidal thoughts, low self-esteem, substance misuse, sexual dysfunction, and other issues are some of the possible long-term consequences of sexual abuse. Additionally, they are more vulnerable to sexual assault, meaning they could experience sexual abuse and assault again. It is often known that sexual abuse has an impact on the entire family because it causes stress, guilt, and strained parent-child relationships in addition to the parents. In children who have experienced sexual abuse, additional symptoms like wrath, dread of the unknown, guilt, high levels of tension, impatience, and aggression are frequently observed[10].  Parents frequently express hatred toward their children, which adds to the victims' suffering, worry, and sense of abandonment.
 
Psychological tests are administered by the forensic psychologists to highlight the child's personality qualities and any history of sexual abuse or assault. The tests are administered after explaining the purpose of the test to the kid at his or her level of comprehension and ensuring that the child is at ease so that the child can answer honestly, freely, and without hesitation[11]. The forensic psychologist considers the child's rights and does not infringe upon any of them while conducting these exams. The court always appoints forensic psychologists to serve as evaluators.
 
Intervention for children who have experienced sexual abuse. Children who have experienced sexual abuse might receive a variety of interventions. These consist of comprehensive longer-term intervention, crisis intervention, short-term abuse-focused intervention, and psychoeducation. These kids can also receive brief instruction in healthy coping mechanisms. Supporting and assisting the child and family in addressing the intricate effects and problems associated with abuse is also one of the most crucial elements[12].  Long-term mental health care is equally crucial in this situation. The intervention may also concentrate on addressing behavioral and emotional issues. They must also concentrate on lowering the chance of re-victimization.
 
Cognitive behavioral therapy may be useful for treating post-traumatic stress disorder, which is frequently experienced by children who have experienced sexual abuse. Among the methods that can be successfully applied in this situation to address behavioral issues include cognitive restructuring, relaxation techniques, desensitization, and behavior management approaches.
 
Another useful tool is group therapy. In group therapy, victims talk to peers who have gone through similar struggles about their feelings and experiences. This allows individuals to experiment with new appropriate behaviors, like social skills, coping mechanisms, and problem-solving abilities, and lessens the stigma associated with sexual assault and abuse. Anxiety, despair, and dread are lessened with group therapy or intervention, and self-esteem is comparatively raised[13].
 
In addition to the aforementioned, the child has been assisted to comprehend the court proceedings and testify less anxiously. With the assistance of psychologists, the child may eventually become the most trustworthy witness in court.  The primary concern here is the extent to which the child's evidence is deemed credible by the court, and the precautions implemented in this regard are crucial[14].
 
4.     Rights of Children When Testifying
As is often known, a witness is a person who provides testimony in court under the Indian Evidence Act of 1872. Witnesses assist the courts in administering just justice by offering insightful information. As a result, the credibility and dependability of the witness are frequently crucial. When it comes to children, the topic of how trustworthy a child witness is and whether or not the youngster can be persuaded to give an account of what they saw or witnessed during a criminal incident come up. This skepticism stems mostly from the assumption and belief that children are too young to understand right from wrong.
 
Any individual may testify in court under Section 118 of the Indian Law as long as they are able to respond to reasonable and logical inquiries and comprehend the questions posed to them by the court themselves. According to Indian law, there is no minimum age requirement to testify, although a person under the age of 12 cannot take the witness oath. However, section 4 of the Oaths Act 1969 states that any youngster who passes the competency test and is aware that they must tell the truth may testify. For instance, the Supreme Court of India ruled in the Suresh v. UP State case that 5-year-old’s evidence is admissible because the youngster is able to comprehend the issue. The judge further stated that the child's testimony is admissible as long as she is able to understand the inquiry[15].
 
All children shall have the civil, political, social, economic, and cultural rights outlined in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of the Child, as well as the protections found in the Indian Constitution and laws. The rights of survival, protection, development, and participation are all included in the first category. The right to development includes the right to education, support for early childhood care and development, social security, and the right to leisure, recreation, and cultural activities, whereas the right to survive includes the rights to life, excellent health, nutrition, a good or adequate standard of living, a name, and nationality.
 
Another crucial child right is the right to protection, which covers freedom from all forms of exploitation, protection from abuse, protection from cruel and humiliating treatment, protection from neglect, and, lastly, protection from harm, impairment, etc. Respect for children's opinions, freedom of expression, freedom of access to all information, and freedom of thought, conscience, and religion are all included in the rights to participation[16]. For children to have the finest start in life and mature into adulthood in the healthiest way possible, they must not only be given the best protection but also chances and assistance.
 
Additionally, certain significant factors pertaining to the child's rights when testifying in court must be taken into account. For example, every attempt should be done to make sure the youngster is "competent" to testify before they do. Since minors are not permitted to take the oath, their testimony is considered "unsworn testimony" and needs to be supported by independent evidence in order to condemn the accused. In the circumstances of sexual assault or abuse, this was not feasible. Therefore, a law that removed the requirement for independent proof and support in children's testimony not being under oath was passed in Canada in 1988.
 
Children who are able to comprehend the nature of swearing and that by committing to tell the truth, they also possess the "ability to communicate" could be an alternative to not taking an oath. The youngster was permitted to testify in these situations when he or she is able to talk and understood that he or she must tell the truth. To put it another way, if a youngster can think well and comprehend the notions of "truth," "lie," and "promise," then their testimony was accepted without a separate inquiry or investigation. The primary concern has consistently been whether the child can comprehend the inquiry and provide a suitable response[17].
 
The competency of youngsters is also questioned because they are susceptible to adult influence and can readily alter their version. The rights that all children must have—civil, political, social, economic, and cultural rights—are frequently determined by the UN Rights of the Child in conjunction with the provisions found in the Indian constitution and laws. The rights of survival, protection, development, and participation are all included in the first category. The right to development includes the right to education, support for early childhood care and development, social security, and the right to leisure and recreation, whereas the right to survival includes the rights to life, excellent health, nutrition, a good or adequate standard of living, and a name and nationality.
 
Another crucial child right is the right to protection, which covers freedom from all forms of exploitation, protection from abuse, protection from cruel and humiliating treatment, protection from neglect, and, lastly, protection from harm, impairment, etc. Respect for children's opinions, freedom of expression, freedom of access to all information, and freedom of thought, conscience, and religion are all included in the rights to participation. In addition to receiving the best safety possible, children also need to be given chances and support to help them get off to the best start in life and grow up in the healthiest possible way[18].
 
Despite all of these restrictions, a child witness's testimony will be admitted and accepted if the judge determines that the youngster is competent and tells the truth. On the whole, the child witness's credibility and competence are also somewhat determined case by case because they vary greatly and depend greatly on the kind of crime the child saw, the circumstances surrounding the incident, the tutoring they received, etc. [19]It should be noted that the court has the authority to determine the kid witness’s reliability and level of competency.
 
"Memory" is one of the crucial elements pertaining to child testimony. Numerous studies that have used lie detectors, various interviewing techniques, misleading questioning, etc., have influenced the kids to change their statements[20]. In these circumstances, being able to suggest has caused them to either add to their knowledge and communicate it or remove something that they were persuaded to do. As a result, unless the child interviewer makes sure to ask the right questions, make the children feel comfortable sharing the truth as they saw it, steer clear of all jargon and abstractions, and frequently assist the child by clarifying the meaning of words.
 
5.     Child Custody and Related Issues
The legal and practical relationship between the parents and the child can be used to explain child custody. The right of parents to raise their children and make decisions about them is implied by custody. "A court decision regarding which parent will have the care, custody, and control of a child" is one definition of it.
 
There are several forms of child custody, such as sole custody, joint custody, physical custody, and legal custody. The parents are entitled to raise their child anyway they see fit in terms of legal custody. Physical custody, on the other hand, grants the parent the right to live with the child.
 
Joint custody refers to the sharing of decision-making and physical custody of the child by both parents, whereas solo custody gives one parent sole physical or legal custody.
 
In this context, a forensic examination process primarily consists of conducting interviews with the parents and child or children, testing the parents psychologically, and preparing and presenting a thorough report. Child custody is the main matter that forensic psychologists handle in practically all family law courts. They also handle parental rights termination, relocation, valuation, maintenance, and support.
 
When conducting child custody evaluations, the forensic psychologist must make sure that the kid's welfare and best interests are given top priority. The evaluations must be completed promptly and with a high level of impartiality and objectivity. When necessary, they should seek out parental counseling and take into account the child's psychological requirements as well as the characteristics of the parents[21].
 
The findings of the entire review must be supported by evidence, and all reports, investigations, and interview records must be factually and, if at all possible, verbatim available on professional records.
 
In addition to the aforementioned, forensic psychologists need to be knowledgeable about the different kinds of divorce, how it affects children and the family, the legal aspects of custody procedures, how to evaluate the personalities of children and adolescents and more.
 
Therefore, forensic child psychology encompasses both psychology and law, even while it involves applying clinical psychology to the forensic setting for the purposes of treating and evaluating children as well as filing reports. When parents refuse to give their children legal or residential custody, forensic child evaluations are used. In complex cases, forensic child custody evaluations are a valuable tool for applying and offering a kid-beneficial resolution.
 
6.     Use of Psychological Tests in Child Custody Cases
When parents disagree over child custody, the court may mandate that a forensic psychologist conduct a custody evaluation. Interviews, observations, home visits, and collateral connections are all part of an evaluation that is in the child's best interests. However, psychological testing is one of the most crucial elements in this case.
 
Psychological examination will reveal both the child's needs and the parent's ability. In order to establish child custody and make the required arrangements, the test results are used as supporting documentation. It is crucial that the psychological tests used are of the highest caliber, standardized in every way with regard to validity and reliability, and that they be given in accordance with all applicable ethical guidelines[22].
 
Testing must be administered with the utmost care and caution, as must the interpretation of test results. Every effort should be made to guarantee that the interpretation is correct and takes into account a number of factors pertaining to the child and his or her parents.
 
According to the American Psychological Association, psychologists who conduct forensic or child custody evaluations must base their conclusions on extensive and thorough data that they have gathered through reports, diagnostic interviews, evaluation statements, forensic testimony, and other sources[23]. It is required that the psychological test report be of extremely high quality in order to be admitted as evidence in a court of law.
 
It needs to be given by highly qualified psychologists. Tests must have been carefully chosen, fair, culturally fair, and administered with a high degree of fairness. Lastly, test results must be interpreted with a high degree of competence, as well as being just and factual with a high degree of objectivity and fairness.
 
Psychologists conduct child custody evaluations in India. In essence, the personal laws of the parties involved govern marriage, divorce, and related matters. For instance, the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 governs Hindus, the Parsi Marriage Act and Divorce Act of 1936 governs Parsies, and so forth. There is also a Special Marriage.
 
The welfare of children is given top priority by the court when it comes to child custody. The legal stance of child custody and parental responsibility is based on the principle that the court's judgment is always in the best interests of the children. Except in situations where the court has conducted a comprehensive examination and determines that the mother is unable to protect the child's best interests, in which case the kid is given to the father, the mother typically has the preference right to custody of the child, especially if the child is female and under the age of five. However, the child has the preference right to remain with any parent after they are nine[24].
 
Based on the child's comfort and basic necessities, the court determines custody. In India, custody of the child would be awarded to the parent who can better meet the child's social, medical, educational, and emotional requirements. The father will be expected to provide for both the mother's and the kid's financial requirements, and the mother will be granted custody of the child even if she is unemployed. This arrangement will last until the child becomes nine, at which point he or she will have the option of being in the custody of either the mother or the father.
 
8.     Conclusion
The function of forensic psychologists in relation to child-related issues was covered in this article. The first topic we covered in this context was the function of forensic psychologists in relation to child sexual abuse. Sexual activities between a minor and an adult (more than five years of age difference) are considered child sexual abuse. In this situation, the elder person controls, takes advantage of, or even coerces the younger person (kid or youth). In the unit, the function of a forensic psychologist in relation to child sexual abuse was also examined. During our testimony, we also talked about children's rights. When it comes to children, the topic of how trustworthy a child witness is and whether or not the youngster can be persuaded to give an account of what they saw or witnessed during a criminal incident come up. This skepticism stems mostly from the assumption and belief that children are too young to understand right from wrong. The unit also covered child custody and related topics. The use of psychological testing in child custody issues was also covered in this context.
 
Since the beginning of civilization, children have been the most vulnerable members of society, dealing with a variety of problems. Numerous health and education-related problems exist in society, yet the majority go unreported and untreated. Children from all generations, ages, sexes, nationalities, and socioeconomic backgrounds are impacted by these widespread issues.
 
Child abuse tantamount to be a silent emergency both for health and justice; but it often goes unnoticed and unreported; thereby making children more susceptible to repetitive exploitation and sufferings. Poverty is the mother of several social evils and CSA is one of such derivatives. Child trafficking further contemplates various kinds of exploitations including sexual violence, flesh trade and forced marriages. Worldwide, there are a series of myths and stereotypes associated with CSA, resulting in further complications. No community or jurisdiction so far could evolve any mechanism to ensure that none of their young ones shall be sexually violated.

[1] United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child.
[2] World Health Organization, Global Status Report on Preventing Violence Against Children 2020 (2020), https://www.unicef.org/media/70731/file/Global-status-report-on-preventing-violence-against-children-2020.pdf.
[3] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2022: Snapshots - State and UTs, Ministry of Home Affairs, Gov’t of India (2022), https://www.ncrb.gov.in/uploads/nationalcrimerecordsbureau/custom/ciiyearwise2022/17016097489aCII2022Snapshots-StateandUTs.pdf.
[4] Satyarthi Foundation, Status of POCSO Cases 2018-2020, https://satyarthi.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Status-of-POCSO-Cases-2018-2020.pdf.
[5] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2019: Statistics, Ministry of Home Affairs, Gov’t of India (2019).
[6] C.R. Bartol & A.M. Bartol, Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Research and Application (2d ed. 2008).
[7] World Health Organization, Report of the Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention (WHO/HSC/PVI/99.1, 1999).
[8] David Canter, Criminal Psychology (2017) New York: Routledge.
[9] K. Champlin, C. Oldham, P. Salvatoriello, H. Zhao & Z. Fang, Child Custody, https://legaldictonary.net/child-custody/ (2015).
[10] Kari Einarsen, Morten Birkeland Nielson, Joren Hetland, et al., Outcomes of a Proximal Workplace Intervention Against Workplace Bullying and Harassment: A Protocol for a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial Among Norwegian Industrial Workers, Frontiers in Psychology, Aug. 31, 2020.
[11] Alan M. Goldstein, Stephen J. Morse, David Shapiro & L. Shapiro, Evaluation of Criminal Responsibility, in Handbook of Psychology (2003).
[12] W. Harmening & A.M. Gamez, Forensic Psychology (2016) Pearson.
[13] Lionel Haward & Gisli H. Gudjonsson, Forensic Psychology: Practitioner's Guide (1998).
[14] M.T. Huss, Forensic Psychology: Research, Clinical Practices and Applications (2014).
[15] John Monahan, ed., Who Is the Client? The Ethics of Psychological Intervention in the Criminal Justice System (Am. Psych. Ass. 1980).
[16] United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 19 & 12, Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3.
[17] D. Polizzi & M.R. Draper, Forensic Psychology Reconsidered: A Critique of Mental Illness and the Courts (2016).
[18] A.L. Shipley & B.A. Arrigo, Introduction to Forensic Psychology: Court, Law Enforcement and Correctional Practices (2012).
[19] Office of Justice Programs, Testimonial Competence of Children, https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/testimonial-competence-children.
[20] Pediatrics, The Child Witness in the Courtroom, 139(3) Pediatrics e20164008 (2017), https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/139/3/e20164008/53469/The-Child-Witness-in-the-Courtroom.
[21] American Psychological Association, Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluations in Family Law Proceedings, https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/child-custody.
[22] Vimala Veeraraghavan, Handbook of Forensic Psychology (Select Sci. Publishers 2009).
[23]  See American Psychological Association, supra note 21, at 8.
[24] L. Walker & D. Shapiro, Introduction to Forensic Psychology (Kluwer Acad./Plenum Publishers 2004).