Open Access Research Article
THE IMPACT OF ARMED CONFLICT ON FOOD SECURITY: A CASE STUDY OF BANGLADESH
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Article Details
THE IMPACT OF
ARMED CONFLICT ON FOOD SECURITY: A CASE STUDY OF BANGLADESH
Abstract
Millions
of people are affected by the growing concentration of food and nutrition
insecurity in nations affected by armed conflict. Armed conflict and economic,
political and environmental factors are not isolated but rather connected and
mutually reinforcing. After discussing general aspects of armed conflict and
food security, this paper discusses the relationship between war and food
security in the context of Bangladesh. A country born by war and just after the
war how it has designed its policies and regulations to ensure food security. Further,
it links with the long stay of Rohingya in Bangladesh and how common concern of
the burden of food and its challenges and prospective steps to mitigate those.
The third aspect of the paper portrays how the war between Russia and Ukraine
has impacted supply disruptions, and financial sanctions pose serious economic
challenges in Bangladesh.
Keywords:
Armed Conflict, Food Security, Food Insecurity, Rohingya Refugee Crises,
Russia-Ukraine war, Bangladesh.
1. Introduction
Bangladesh is a densely populated
(1,342 Density
(P/Km²) country with a current population 173,978,162,[2]
which bears 2.15 % of the world population in an area of 148,460 square
kilometres (57,320 sq mi). The country is agrarian (more than half of the
population are engaged directly in agriculture for survival) based.[3] The major food crops are quite available
in Bangladesh, especially rice,[4]
which is considered as the staple food of Bangladesh.
According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization’s (hereinafter, FAO) definition, food security exists when all
people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for
an active and healthy life.[5]This
implies food security is the product of the availability,
accessibility and utilization of food. It also extends to the stability of
supplies and biological utilization.[6]
Here availability is, domestic production and insecurity, the situation
where there is limited or uncertain access to nutritionally adequate and safe
food, or a restricted ability to obtain acceptable food through socially
acceptable means.[7] Further, the stability
of those three dimensions should be consistent over time and state should have
ability to manage risks effectively in any manner. From the health perspective,
those whose food
consumption falls below their minimum calorie requirements are classified as
food insecure,[8]
as are those who are truly unfit or have a sickness as a result of a lack of
food and cravings or an unbalanced diet.
According to Hunger Index (GHI) Bangladesh ranked 81th in 2023. It is one of the 18 countries with
moderate, serious, or alarming 2023 Global Hunger Index (GHI) scores and hunger has been worsen in
recent years since 2015.[9]
Between 2015 and 2023 GHI scores,
Bangladesh is one of the seven countries have achieved reductions of five
points or more.[10] As per the Global Food
Security Index of 2022, Bangladesh ranked 80 among 113 countries.[11] Due to the several direct
and indirect factors food security
remains a pressing problem as one quarter of the population of Bangladesh faces
food insecurity.[12]
To trace that food security and insecurity of Bangladesh this paper has
chosen the instance of armed conflict. Armed conflict is one of the undeniably significant factors
contributing to global food insecurity.[13]Many
conflict zones remind us of the vicious cycle between conflict and hunger.[14] Food insecurity is connected
to armed conflict at least two aspects. One is starvation as a method of
warfare to create food insecurity, [15] and secondly, food
insecurity is an effect of armed conflict. Understanding the Liberation War of 1971 and its
aftermath can demystify the idea of food insecurity in Bangladesh. The food crisis
is growing in Bangladesh due to the burden of more than 1 million Rohingya
refugees,[16]
and the Russia-Ukraine War[17] just after the COVID-19
pandemic, which has affected all over the world.[18]
Therefore, the paper investigates the effect of armed conflict on Bangladesh's food security.
Three situations have been taken into consideration to investigate how armed
conflict may directly or indirectly impact food security, here Bangladesh. First situation, Bangladesh as a war born country how it has faced food
insecurity and its steps to securitization. This example will help to
understand post war crisis and required measures of a State for food security. Second
situation, this paper look refugee influx can considered as a factor for food
insecurity of the host country. During independence war of Bangladesh a huge
number of Bangladeshi refugee was hosted in neighboring country India, in turn,
2017 Bangladesh become of host country of Rohingya refugee as a result of
genocidal atrocities committed by Myanmar. Third situation, focus on how a
armed conflict create trade deficit and may impact any State’s food
security. Here Ukraine- Russia conflict situation has been considered as global
food security, where Bangladesh also impacted as a peripheral country.
2. Bangladesh a War Born and its Securitization
of Food
While Starvation may intentionally use by conflicting parties as a method
of warfare,[19]
sometimes it also occurs as an unintended consequence of military activities. [20]Without going into the
debate This paper is not focused on Starvation as method of warfare but the
food insecurity resulted due to the war in a post-conflict situation. The
nine-month bloody war against Pakistani occupation forces for the liberation of
Bangladesh in 1971 left the country with a fragile economy; feeding 70 million
people was a major challenge during that time.[21]
In the aftermath of the Pakistani
army's rampage last March, a special team of inspectors from the World Bank
observed that some cities looked "like the morning after a nuclear
attack." Since then, the destruction has only been magnified. An estimated
6,000,000 homes have been destroyed, and nearly 1,400,000 farm families have
been left without tools or animals to work their lands. Transportation and
communications systems are totally disrupted. Roads are damaged, bridges are out,
and inland waterways are blocked. The rape of the country continued right up
until the Pakistani army surrendered a month ago. In the last days of the war,
West Pakistani-owned businesses—which included nearly every commercial
enterprise in the country—remitted virtually all their funds to the West.
Pakistan International Airlines left exactly 117 rupees ($16) in its account at
the port city of Chittagong. The army also destroyed bank notes and coins, so
many areas now suffer from a severe shortage of ready cash. Private cars were picked
up off the streets or confiscated from auto dealers and shipped to the West
before the ports were closed.
—?"BANGLADESH: Mujib's Road from Prison to Power", Time magazine,
17 January 1972.
“To describe the economic condition of newly-born Bangladesh, political
analyst and the then US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger who served under US
presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford dubbed Bangladesh a "basket
case" while he was on a short trip to Dhaka in 1974.[22] The total gross domestic
product (GDP) of Bangladesh was about $6.288 billion in 1972, while the per
capita income was merely $94. In 1977-78, the total GDP at current prices was
Tk146.37 billion and the contribution of agriculture to GDP was 53%. At that
time, the contribution of agriculture to the GDP was Tk77.57 billion.[23] In preparing its food budget for
1973-74, the Government of Bangladesh estimated a food gap of 2.2 million tons”.[24]
Just after the war, Bangladesh
confronted two formidable food crises in 1972 and 1974. While the government
succeeded in averting a widely predicted famine in the first case, it failed to
prevent an actual famine in the latter case when such a cataclysmic disaster
was least anticipated.[25] Since its independence in
1971, Bangladesh has seen a number of man-made and natural disasters that have
jeopardized the food security of the poor and marginalized, for example, the
famine in 1974[26],
floods in 1987, 1988, and 1998[27], and cyclones in 1991 and
2007[28]. The Bangladesh
famine of 1974 commenced in March 1974 and persisted until approximately
December of the same year. Government estimate:
27,000; Unofficial estimate: 1.5 million deaths.[29]
It was mainly caused by successive onslaughts of natural disasters such as
floods.[30] Evidence suggests that the 1974 famine was
caused by successive onslaughts of natural disasters such as floods and
droughts and man-made disasters such as the government's inability to import
foods, the directing of subsidized food to the politically vocal urban
population, an abrupt fall in food aid and political and administrative
corruption that encouraged massive hoarding and the smuggling of food grain.[31]
However, this paper
claims the effect of armed conflict was a big reason of the famine after the
war. This is evident in different political dialogues and steps of government. In
the post-conflict situation government's government was unable to import foods,
the directing of subsidized food to the politically vocal urban population,
and; Political and administrative corruption that encouraged massive hoarding
and the smuggling of food grain.[32]
For the importation of food and other
crisis management for Bangladesh, it was very necessary to have United Nations
Membership. To obtain UN membership and recognition from many other countries,
it was argued by many scholars in 1974, Bangladesh agreed to repatriate 195
prisoners of war (hereinafter, POW) Bangladesh – India – Pakistan: Agreement on
the repatriation of Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees, 9 April 1974.[33]
The significance of food security can be found in the Constitutional Provisions to protect the right to food. Within the ambit
of Fundamental State Policy of Bangladesh under Article 15 (a) of the
constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh explicitly states that providing food shall be a
fundamental responsibility of the State.[34]
The material and cultural standard of living of the people, with the goal
of ensuring the provision of basic requirements of life, especially food, to
its population. Bangladesh also has an international obligation to the right
to food. Bangladesh ratified
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in 1998;
article 11(2) of the
Covenant declares that State Parties are obliged to recognize the fundamental
right of every individual to be free from hunger. It further mandates that they
shall take appropriate measures, both individually and through international cooperation,
including implementing specific programs, to fulfil this right. Thus, Article 11 upholds fundamental human
rights and liberties and respect for human dignity and worth.
The constitution
establishes rural development and the agricultural revolution (Article 16), as
well as improving nutrition and public health (Article 18), as essential
principles of State policy. Thus, while the constitution does not recognize the
right to food as a basic right, the spirit of the constitution might be considered
to be in favor of the full realization of this right. Furthermore, the constitution
recognizes the right to life as a basic right (Article 32), which might be
claimed to encompass the right to food through judicial interpretation. In the
case of other socioeconomic rights, the judicial extension of this civil right
to areas previously regarded as non-enforceable has already been documented in
Bangladesh.[35]
After the war anarchic
situation was created in Bangladesh, people were divided into small groups of
people and thereby to control the situation government passed the Special
Powers Act, 1974.[36] The Act was enacted to establish
specific measures aimed at preventing certain harmful activities and ensuring a
more expeditious trial and effective punishment for severe offenses.[37]
Under section 25 it provides the capital punishment whoever is found guilty of
the offence of hoarding or dealing in the black-market shall be
punishable with death, or the
offender may face imprisonment for life or rigorous imprisonment for a period
of up to fourteen years, in addition to being subject to a fine.[38] The capital punishment for hoarding or black
marketing remain us how important was to manage food chain at that time. Under
Section 25 B it also penalize smuggling for takes out (or in) of Bangladesh
jute, gold or silver bullion, manufactures of gold or silver, currency, articles
of food, drugs, imported goods, or any other goods. Most importantly, it
penalizes for adulteration of, or sale of adulterated food, drink, drugs or
cosmetics. According to Article 25C, if someone deliberately adulterates
any food or beverage item, making it harmful for consumption with the intention
of selling it as food or drink, or being aware that it is likely to be sold as
food or drink, they are in violation of the provision.
Emergence of food insecurity and
Bangladesh active role towards food security can be positively seen in FAO. FAO has been working in Bangladesh since 1973.[39]
Bangladesh joined FAO on 12 November 1973 within two years
of gaining its independence from Pakistan.[40]
Over time, the food and agricultural sectors of the country have undergone significant transformations. Bangladesh has successfully attained food security for its substantial and expanding population. As one of the fastest-growing economies globally, the nation is now placing greater emphasis on achieving nutrition security and expanding its food exports. Though, after the famine in 1974 Bangladesh has not faced gross food insecurity, there is some situation that is linked to food security discussion in Bangladesh.
Over time, the food and agricultural sectors of the country have undergone significant transformations. Bangladesh has successfully attained food security for its substantial and expanding population. As one of the fastest-growing economies globally, the nation is now placing greater emphasis on achieving nutrition security and expanding its food exports. Though, after the famine in 1974 Bangladesh has not faced gross food insecurity, there is some situation that is linked to food security discussion in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh, although making gradual
progress in achieving food security and raising the level of nutrition, the
overall situation of food and nutrition does not give a good impression. Therefore, the existing food
crises in Bangladesh, having multiple variables along with bloodstained
historical events like the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, puts immense
pressure on the current government and the people of Bangladesh.
3. Rohingya
Refugee Crises and Food Crisis in Host Locality
In 2017, the genocidal atrocities and human
rights violations in Rakhine (The Rohingya's native place, previously
recognized as Arakan) State of Western Myanmar driven an estimated
750,000 Rohingya refugees across the border into Cox's Bazar in Bangladesh.[41]
The United Nations termed the Rohingya as "the most persecuted minority in
the world", [42]
and these is the fourth largest displacement of population in the world. [43] Currently, there are
more than 1.1 million refugee living in the camps in Cox’s Bazar, while many
refugee has been settled in local area as well as they are unidentifiable as
the host community and rohingya shares religious, linguistic, and cultural
similarities. The speed and scale
of the influx created a critical humanitarian emergency,[44] putting an immense strain on infrastructure,
services, and the host population.[45] When refugees are hosted in the neighboring countries,
impacts created by refugees on the developing host countries.[46]
Burden for the host community, and their presence is thought
to lead to
increases many developmental problems.[47]
Along with other problems like high crime rate, discomfort around the camps,
rising cost of transportation, increase in cost of living, falling wages of
laborers,[48] environmental
degradation and mainly economical development of Bangladesh has impacted. The growing need of Rohingya
refugees have compounded existing socioeconomic burden for host communities,
exacerbating pressures on public services, infrastructure, and the environment.
Several studies shows the correlation Refugee hosting and negative socio
economic outcomes, specially in food insecurity.[49]
This part of the paper will look at the impact of the sudden influx of
Rohingya on food security in the main host region of Bangladesh. [50]Though,
the impact on the food securities due to Rohingya population in Bangladesh is
not apparent, there is strong evidence to an increase in food prices in short
run since there has been significant increase in demand.[51] A
research shows indicate that 8 percent of overall food prices was increased in
the host sub-district of Ukhia, with prices of protein (7 percent) and
vegetables (36 percent).[52] Fir
instance, just before the influx started, per kg potato cost 20 BDT ($0.24) it
has since tripled in price to 60 or 70 taka.[53] Though
these, these food price did not grow up, they were not substantial enough to
decrease other food prices. The price hike is not surprising, rather it has
been observed in many
parts of the world, the refugee host area has been evidenced price hike in
every basic food availability.[54]
Bangladesh imports several food items, like wheat, oil and just after the
refugee influx trade deficit of Bangladesh also increased. Though, there was no specific evidence that influx or the refugees contributed to it, Bangladesh
tend to increase its dependency on the developed countries to balance
importation of food items.[55]
Apart from the scarcity of food due
to sudden increase of consumer, there are other factors that contribute to the
food insecurity in the region. For instance, to host the refugee the local
people also constructed converted farming land to residence which increased
which push the land prices in the region.[56] The massive influx of refugees into the Teknaf and Ukhiya. Teknaf peninsula is
an ecologically critical area and Ukhiya is a forested regions, the settlement of Rohingya has threatened
natural and planted forests.[57]
This has impacted ecological chain and natural resource in the region of host
community.[58] Food
production disrupted due to occupy land, deforestation, change in the
eco-system.
The situation for Bangladesh gets worse considering the weather extremes
that creates more challenges to deal with food insecurity. During the
May–September monsoon season, humanitarian conditions deteriorated
significantly. Shelters were damaged and people displaced as Cox's Bazar is
extremely prone to flooding and landslides because of its rugged and hilly
terrain.[59]
The overcrowded camps pose a fire risk. In March 2023, a massive fire affected
16000 people with over 5000 people displaced and nearly
3000 shelters damaged or destroyed. The fire destroyed many refugees
documentation, essential for identification and to access assistance and
services.[60]
The requirement of huge humanitarian
assistance fund for Rohingya refugees is another problem, as of July 2021, only
$366 million of around $1 billion has been committed or disbursed. [61]The
overall disbursement has declined to 34 percent of the total money required.[62]
Bangladesh is shouldering a significant economic burden in providing support
for the persecuted Rohingya population. The report published by Centre for Policy Dialogue (CPD), a
think tank based in Bangladesh states that the country has to spend around
$1.22 billion every year on Rohnigya Refugees.[63]
As per CPD, an estimated cost of approximately $7 billion would be necessary to
host and provide support for the Rohingya refugees over the initial five-year
period, assuming repatriation does not occur.[64]
Indeed, many International
Organization and also local NGOs are providing funds for humanitarian
assistance. Like many other program, the launch of the Rohingya refugee Joint
Response Plan, co-hosted by the Government of Bangladesh and the United Nations
in Geneva comes at a critical moment, the international support is declining
and lack of funds is resulting in World Food Program to cut rations in the
start of 2023.[65] The food aid is literally a matter
of life and death for Rohingya
families, we have evidenced the worse in situation of ration cut.[66] It is undeniable that, huge humanitarian
aid has been supplied as food products, such as cereals and lentils. Only
ration cannot fulfill all their nutritional
demands. There is gross food insecurity within the displaced
Rohingya refugee population, they are malnutrition and allied problems of food
insecurity.[67]
Just external assistance is not that
much impactful in fulfilling accessibility of food, Bangladesh has to bear the
burden of them.[68] Thus, the Rohingya refugee crisis is
one of the major challenges for Bangladesh to mitigate rising food insecurity.
Moreover, the long stay of Rohingya in Bangladesh has crated the common concern
of the general people, they are not ready to share the burden of food caused
due to sheltering Rohingya.[69]However,
the burden could have been converted as human resources.
Manpower always an asset of any
countries if they can be utilized for economic development. But in case of Rohingya
Refugee, they are restricted within the cams and not holds rights as like citizens
of Bangladesh. But here most important aspect of utilization of manpower into a
resource is lacking. The refuges are not allowed to access labour market and
wage earning.[70] However,
they have worked in unskilled category they have employed illegally mainly
undertake work on constructions or in the fishery sector in cheaper wage (300
BDT while 500 BDT is the regular per day wages).The right to work or right at
work Bangladesh Labour Code 2006 and related constitutional provisions are only
limited to ensure rights of the citizen of Bangladesh.[71] However,
Bangladesh is under obligation under several international instruments to
ensure well being of the refugee.[72]
Furthermore, there are several constitutional provisions and legislations of
Bangladesh is applicable to Rohingya refugee on case to case basis.[73]
For instance, every person present in Bangladesh has access to justice safe
guard against arrest and detention,[74] no
person shall deprived of life and personal liberty etc.[75]
So economic opportunities for Rohingya is very limited to pecuniary
benefit as a volunteer for work within camps. The increase in food prices have detrimental effect on
the welfare of the host region population due to lack of effective policies to
mitigate the economic impacts. Impacts of refugee on host communities food
security.[76] The history of food problem
in Bangladesh provides the idea of a transformative approach towards the food
policy of Bangladesh.[77] While Bangladesh public
policy pronouncements emphasize food self-sufficiency as a goal, [78]
more attention required in the policymaking.[79] The explicit price stabilization and food security
policies need to be regulating in more comprehensive manner.[80] The study conducted by the
Bangladesh Law Commission to assess the ground situation of the right to food
and develop a comprehensive framework law illuminates the problem of food
insecurity.[81]
Further, Bangladesh would benefit from taking the necessary steps to move
towards instrument choices that are likely to be more effective in the long
term. In order to do that, (i) supporting institutions need to be developed;
(ii) the pacing and sequencing of reforms, and parallel development of
non-trade policies, need to be managed; and (iii) the political economy forces
that lead policymakers to favour short-term trade measures need to be
contained.[82]
4. What the
Russia-Ukraine War means for the Economy of Bangladesh:
On February 24, 2022,
an armed conflict between Russian Federation (Russia) and Ukraine escalated
which has impacted global food security, in other words the humanitarian crisis
inflict food insecurity. This incident had happened when world was already
continuing the broken chain of food availability and accessibility. A report shows that in 2020, 155 million
people globally were acutely food insecure, with 99.1 million of those living
in 23 countries where war and conflicts were the main causes of food insecurity.[83] It
indicates that war and conflicts is a major driver of hunger and food
insecurity.
The
Russia-Ukraine war has become one of the major inflictor of global food crisis.
Because, both the
countries are the major producers and exporters of wheat, maize, sunflower
seeds, potassium, phosphorus and urea (46% nitrogen) fertilizers.[84] Russia was the top wheat
exporter, sending out 32.9 million tonnes, which is equivalent to 18% of the
world's wheat shipments. Ukraine ranked sixth in wheat exports, with 20 million
tones, making up 10% of the global market share. [85]Both countries have a 25% share of
global wheat export. These countries are known as global bread baskets,
as nearly 50 countries depend on them for at least 30 percent of their wheat
imports, with 26 countries sourcing over 50 percent of their wheat imports from
these two countries.[86]They also
played a significant role in supplying barley and corn, contributing
approximately 20% of the global barley supply and 18% of the maize supply
before the pandemic.[87]
Additionally, Russia is a major player in the global fertilizer market, being
the leading exporter of nitrogen fertilizers and the second-largest exporter of
potassic fertilizers in 2021.[88]
It was also the third-largest exporter of phosphorus fertilizers in the same
year. The effect of war on global food security is unprecedented at least over
a half century.
The
food insecurity has cased market instability and food price hike. The simulated price impact (-10%) for
wheat are in line with the FAO (2022)[89]
in which wheat exports from Ukraine and Russia fall by 25 million tons per
year, other grains by 5 million tons and oilseeds by 3 million tons. The FAO
scenario leads to 8-22% higher food and feed prices in the short term (in
2022/23 compared to baseline) and after five years (2026/27) to 10 to 19%
higher wheat prices compared to baseline.[90]
While the
Russia –Ukraine armed conflict disrupt national and worldwide food
supplies, it has mainly impacted to the import dependent countries as the
food supplies being interrupted. Russia's invasion of Ukraine has resulted in the displacement
of millions of people, causing a significant humanitarian crisis, [91]which
has also hampered agricultural trade and production from one of the world’s
major exporting regions. This is the one factor as the conflict in Ukraine’s
has decreased the wheat production which also impact the global price increased.[92] Disruption
in production has threatened the supply of grain to countries traditionally
reliant on imports from Ukraine.[93]
But the main factor can be identified
as the trade embargo imposed by sanctions on Russia. Undoubtedly there are negative impacts on Russian economy and the country
has imposed sanctioned.[94]
This has raised concerns about food and
energy crises due to economic sanctions against Russia. [95]
The United States, Europe, and Japan have taken the lead in imposing economic
sanctions, particularly the blockage of Russia’s fuel exports (natural gas,
oil, and coal) to prevent Russia from earning foreign currency, and to restrict
imports to impede Russian domestic economic activity. [96]Study
shows that, the sanctions against Russia spilled over negatively to trade and
direct investment between Russia and former Soviet Union countries.[97]
The world has been witnessing an
increased number of people living in food insecurity, along with many other
reasons where the war and conflict is one of the major reason for national as
well as global food insecurity. The globalization of trade made countries
interdependent on essential commodities. The global network of food and
agriculture has become denser as more low-income countries participate in
trade, resulting in the decentralization of food and agriculture trade[98]. The
impact of war in one region has the potential to disrupt the global food
supply. This has increased surge in global commodity prices due to the
Russia-Ukraine conflict has had severe consequences for many impoverished
nations, including Bangladesh, which heavily depend on imported wheat and oil. Despite
it is a peripheral country, Bangladesh has been indirectly impacted due armed
conflict without any territorial boundary. The conflict not only jeopardizes
the economic and political stability of Bangladesh but also has far-reaching
implications for its social and environmental factors. These interconnected and
mutually reinforcing impacts pose a significant threat to food security in
Bangladesh. Bangladesh
economy had recovered crisis occurred due to COVID-19 pandemic, the armed
conflict posed a trade shock that inflict food insecurity. The war in Ukraine
has negatively affected the food, energy, and fiscal situation in Bangladesh.
While the rise of inflation to 7.4 percent is the highest since May 2014 and
continued increasing up to a peak of 9.9 percent in August 2022.[99] Bangladesh has seen
exponentially rising prices and supply problems in multiple areas of the
agriculture and food industry.[100]
As an example, the imposition of export bans has played a role in the escalation of prices in commodities such as palm oil. Additionally, wheat prices have witnessed a significant surge, with a real-term increase of 56% for palm oil and 100% for wheat between June 2021 and April 202.[101] In addition, high oil prices have a knock-on effect on other prices, leading to further inflationary pressure. [102]The increase in price of fertilizer in global market and the fluctuating price due to the disrupted market has caused uncertainty among the farmers.[103]
The sanctions on the trade, caused
the food availability to access
globally, but it especially affects disadvantaged and vulnerable groups.[104]
Furthermore, the impact of sanctions can be extent to individual level.[105]Several
research shows that, food availability is decreasing in most low-income countries
due to supply restrictions from Ukraine and Russia.[106]As
an enforcement measure, sanctions have been issued against Russia, but the
sanction has impacted more to the third country in comparison to the imposed
country (Russia). Though developed countries are sourcing their requirements
from other oil-producing countries, small and poor countries like Bangladesh
are finds it difficult, with their limited financial abilities, to meet their
energy requirements. So, the sanctions
imposed on Russia as a punishment for other countries, which are
dependent in trading.
The dependency of vulnerable food-importing countries due to the effect
of war politically powerful countries also considered as part food and
politics.[107]
Though the Russia-Ukraine
armed conflict indirectly impact the food security of Bangladesh, should not be
used as a pretext for increasing commodity prices, rather, the syndicates had
increase the price using conflict as a weapon. Therefore, even if there is no
direct effect of armed conflict in third country food security, the situation
itself creates food insecurity from the local level.
The Sustainable Development Goal to creating a world free of hunger by
2030 is far-fetching from reality.[108] Bangladesh has
contributed in economic development. After
50 years of birth, the GDP per capita of Bangladesh is competing with that of
India and significantly exceed that of Pakistan.[109] The development of
agriculture has been the utmost priority of the Government of Bangladesh,
bringing significant structural changes, despite many problems and constraints
like natural calamities, population growth, sociopolitical changes,
technological advancement, and the creation of inclusive democracy.[110] Bangladesh is at a
crossroads in its efforts to combat poverty and achieve food security for its
people.[111]
The report prepared by International
Life Sciences Institute provides an account of laws and regulations
brought by Bangladesh through its National Food and Nutrition Policy.[112] However, it is yet to
develop a unified Food Safety Administration System and to formulate a Food
Safety Policy for its citizens.[113]
5. Conclusion
At present a huge number of people
experiencing a crisis of food insecurity in, which conflict was the primary
reason. But if we see the recent food crisis that is mainly caused by the
impact of armed conflict, where countries are not parties to the conflict
suffer even more than the parties of the conflict. Bangladesh had faced food
crisis in post conflict situation as a part of the liberation war in 1971
beyond the question of whether Pakistan used Starvation in the warfare or not.
The famine in the post-conflict situation shows that to ensure food security,
the government had to take different steps at national and international levels
to seek aid and global trade. Bangladesh is also struggling to feed a huge
number of Rohingya refugees, caused due to armed conflict in Myanmar. In the
area of Globalization and trade, despite having no direct influence of armed
conflict, third countries' food security is being impacted. Bangladesh, like
many other small states also impacted due to Ukraine –Russia. While the Covid-19 pandemic
induced huge economic imbalance and world started has just to recover at that
time the war between Russia and Ukraine has impacted global economy. While
Sanctions is one of the measures against war, but the real scenario is that
instead of affecting sanctioned country, sanctions affect economy of small
power third country. Due to Russia's position as the
third-largest oil producer globally, the high oil prices are adversely
impacting the global economy. While developed nations can rely on alternative
oil-producing countries to fulfill their needs, smaller and economically
disadvantaged countries face challenges due to their limited financial
capabilities to meet their energy demands. Furthermore, the elevated oil prices
have a ripple effect on other commodity prices, exacerbating inflationary
pressures.
[1] Md.
Farhan Rashed, Lecturer, Department of Law, Uttara University, Bangladesh &
Advocate, District Session Judges Court Dhaka, Bangladesh, LLB & LLM
University of Dhaka.
** Dr. Mafruza Sultana Assistant
Professor & Chairman, Department of Law, Uttara University, Bangladesh&
Advocate Supreme Court of Bangladesh, LLM& PhD South Asian University, New
Delhi, India.
[2] As of
Thursday, February 1, 2024, based on Worldometer elaboration of the latest
United Nations data. Available at https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/,
access on 05 February 2024.
[3] Dean Jolliffe et al.
‘Bangladesh-Poverty Assessment: Assessing a Decade of Progress in Reducing
Poverty, 2000-2010.’ (2013), available at https://policycommons.net/artifacts/1515233/bangladesh-poverty-assessment/2190307/ accessed on 02 February 2024.
[4] Hossain Mahabub, ‘Food
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[5] Rafael Pérez-Escamilla, ‘Food
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[6] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
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of Roma Tre: Rome, Italy 2012) ; Per Pinstrup-Andersen, ‘Food
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[7]
Anderson Sue Ann, ‘Core Indicators of Nutritional State for
Difficult-to-Sample Populations’ The Journal of Nutrition (1990) Volume 120, Supplement 11,
Pages 1555-1598
[8] The problem Magnitude and nature
of food insecurity and vulnerability, https://www.fao.org/4/x8346e/x8346e02.htm, last
accessed on 10th March 2025
[9] Global Hunger Index- 2023, The
Power of Youth in Shaping Food System, available at https://www.globalhungerindex.org/pdf/en/2023.pdf, accessed on 4th
February 2024.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Global Food Security Index
(GFSI),
[12] ---The Right to Food : Legal Protection in Bangladesh
‘Bangladesh Legal Aid and Services Trust (BLAST) Campaign for Right to Food
& Social Security (RtF&SS)’ 2015, available at https://www.blast.org.bd/content/publications/Right-to-food-2015.pdf, accessed on 1st Nov 2024.
[13] Report of the Secretary General for the World
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February 2016, at 25. ?
[14] Security Council Reporter, Monthly Forecast: Conflict
and Hunger (28 February 2018) available at ?https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2018-03/conflict_and_hunger.php,
accessed on 4th February 2024.
[15] The Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of
12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International
Armed Conflicts (Protocol I),1977, Article 54 ,
Article 48 ; Protocol Additional
to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of
Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 1977, Article. 14; The
Rome Statute 1998, Article 8(2)(b)(xxv).Read further, Dapo Akande,
Emanuela-Chiara Gillard, ‘Conflict-induced Food Insecurity and the War Crime of
Starvation of Civilians as a Method of Warfare: The Underlying Rules of
International Humanitarian Law’ (2019) 17 (4) Journal of International Criminal
Justice 753; George Alfred Mudge, ‘Starvation as a Means of Warfare’, (1970) 4
(2) The International Lawyer 228.
[16] Zanjabil Mashkura, “Pressure on
Bangladesh Government on the Rohingya Food Crisis Issue”,16 March, 2023, The
Financial Express, https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/pressure-on-bangladesh-government-on-the-rohingya-food-crisis-issue,Accssed on June 14, 2023
[17] Abdullah Mamun, Josheph Glauber
And David Laborde, 'How the war in Ukraine threatens Bangladesh’s food
security' (Issue Post, IFPRI, 20 April 2022)
Accessed on 6 June 2023
[18] Sha Mohammad Fahim et al,
‘Nutrition and Food Security in Bangladesh: Achievements, Challenges, and
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic’ The Journal of Infectious Diseases S901
(2021), at 224
[19] In many situations parties to conflicts engage in
deliberate practices that cause civilians to starve. The UN Commission of
Inquiry on Syria, for example, has concluded that civilians are routinely
denied medical evacuations, the delivery of vital foodstuffs, health items, and
other essential supplies, all in an effort to compel their surrender, and has
documented this conduct as being widespread in connection to sieges.
[20] Federica D’Alessandra, Matthew
Gillett, ‘The War Crime of Starvation in Non-International Armed Conflict’,
Journal of International Criminal Justice, (2019) Volume 17 ( 4), September
2019, Pages 815–847, https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqz042
[21] Mohiuddin Alamgir, Famine in South Asia: Political Economy of
Mass Starvation (Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain, Cambridge, MA, 1980) .See
also Amartya Sen, ‘Starvation and
Exchange Entitlements: A General Approach and its Application to the Great
Bengal Famine, Cambridge Journal of Economics, (March 1977),Volume 1, Issue 1,
, Pages 33–59, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.cje.a035349
[22] Salil Tripathi , ‘Bangladesh’s
Long Journey From ‘Basket Case’ to Rising Star’ (Foreign Policy, April 10,
2021)
[23] Dr Md Saidur Rahman, ‘From
Hunger to Plenty’ (The Business Standard, December 16, 2020)
[24] Rehman Sobhan, ‘Politics of Food and Famine in
Bangladesh’, Economic and Political Weekly, (1979) Vol. 14, No. 48 (Dec. 1,
1979), pp. 1973-1980
[25] Caf Dowlah, ‘The
Politics and Economics of Food and Famine in Bangladesh in the early 1970s–with
Special Reference to Amartya Sen's Interpretation of the 1974 Famine’ International Journal of Social Welfare 15.4
(2006): 344-356.
[26] Caf Dowlah, ‘The Politics and
Economics of Food and Famine in Bangladesh in the Early 1970s – with Special
Reference to Amartya Sen’s Interpretation of the 1974 Famine’ International
Journal of Social Welfare (2006) Vol. 15 at 344
[27]Nurul Huda, ‘Floods Devastate
Bangladesh’ Washington Post (1987
).
[28] Tahmida Hadi and others,
‘Seeking Shelter: The Factors That Influence Refuge since Cyclone Gorky in the
Coastal Area of Bangladesh’ Progress in Disaster Science 100179, (2021) at 11
[30] https://mygoldenbengal.wordpress.com/2014/11/08/1974-famine-in-bangladesh-economic-context-and-myths/ last
accessed on 10th March 2025
[31] Caf Dowlah, ‘The Politics and Economics of Food and Famine in Bangladesh
in the early 1970s–with Special Reference to Amartya Sen's Interpretation of
the 1974 Famine’ International Journal
of Social Welfare 15.4 (2006): 344-356.
[32] Ibid
[33] Ibid
[34] Constitution of the People's
Republic of Bangladesh [Bangladesh], 4
November 1972, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5684.html
[accessed 15 June 2023]Article 15
[35] Constitution of the People's
Republic of Bangladesh 1972, Article 11, 16, 18, and 32.
[38] Ibid, Section 25.
[41] Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia
v. Myanmar) (Preliminary Objections) [2022] ICJ GL No. 178
“Bangladesh:
Rohingya Refugees Flee to Largest Camp” (World Food Program USA, August 1,
2017)
[42] Amani Shahan , ‘Rohingya: The
Most Persecuted Minority in the World’ (Global Village Space, January 31, 2020)
[43] Asraful Alam and others, ‘Impact of Rohingya Refugees on Food
Prices in Bangladesh: Evidence from a Natural Experiment’ (2022) World
Development 105873. at154
[44] Strengthening the Capacities of Local And National
Ngos in The Rohingya Refugee Response, Feb 2023, https://www.icvanetwork.org/uploads/2024/09/Bangladesh-Food-Security-Sector-IASC-Localization-Good-Practices.pdf, last accessed on 10th March 2025
[45]
Food Security Cluster, Bangladesh Rohingya Refugee Response (Cox's
Bazar), https://fscluster.org/rohingya_
crisis ,
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[46] Bhajan Chandra Barman,
‘Impact of Refugees on Host Developing Countries, in S.K. Das, and N.
Chowdhary, (eds) Refugee Crises and Third-World Economies ( Emerald Publishing
Limited, Leeds, 2020) 103.
[47] Alix-Garcia et al. ‘The Economics of Hosting Refugees: A Host
Community Prespective From Turkana’ (UNHCR and World Bank Publication,
2017). See also, Isabel Ruiz, and Carlos
Vargas-Silva,’The Consequences of Forced Migration for Host Communities in
Africa’ (2017) 31 (3) Revue D’économie Du Développement 135.
[48] Zaidi Sattar, ‘Rohingya Crisis
and the Host Community” (The Financial Express, 2019)
[49] Athur Mabiso, et
al. Refugees, Food Security, and Resilience in Host Communities:
Transitioning from Humanitarian Assistance to Development in Protracted Refugee
Situations’ (Vol. 2. Intl. Food Policy Research Institute 2014. However, only cross country
study cannot show the exact correlation, it require holistic approach.
[50] Ashraful Alam,, et al.
‘Impact of Rohingya Refugees on Food Prices in Bangladesh: Evidence from a
Natural Experiment’. World Development 154 (2022): 105873.
[51] Ibid (n-48)
[52] Ibid(n-47)
[53] “Rohingya Refugees Test Bangladeshi Welcome as Prices
Rise and Repatriation Stalls,” 28 February 2018.
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-banglade
shtensions/rohingya-refugees-test-bangladeshi-welcome-as-pric
es-riseand-repatriation-stalls-idUSKCN1GC08Y.
[54] Alix-Garcia, at el.
‘Displaced Populations, Humanitarian Assistance and Hosts: A framework for
Analyzing Impacts on Semi-urban Households’, (2012) Vol. 40(2) World Development 373-386.
[55] Emese Laura László, The Impact of Refugees on Host
Countries: A Case Study of Bangladesh under the Rohingya Influx, Aalborg
University, Demnark.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Imtiaz Sakib,
‘Ecological Impact of Rohingya Refugees on Forest Resources: Remote Sensing
Analysis of Vegetation Cover Change in Teknaf Peninsula in Bangladesh’ (2018) 4
(1) Ecocycles 16. According to UNDP Bangladesh and UN Women
Bangladesh . 2018. Report on Environmental Impact of Rohingya Influx, Dhaka,
Bangladesh. UN Woman data, the camp
expansion has caused damage to approximately 2000 ha of forest after the
arrival of over 750,000 Rohingya refugees just
in August 2017. Read Further, UNDP Bangladesh and UN Women Bangladesh ,
‘Report on Environmental Impact of Rohingya Influx, 2018. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
[58] Ibid, See also,
Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery Rohingya crisis
2017–2018 Draft Rapid Impact, Vulnerability and Needs Assessment: Executive
Summary, 2018. https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/Rohingya%2520crisis%2520exec%2520summary-2.pdf
(accessed 06 February, 2024).
[59] ‘Bangladesh Rohingya Refugees:
Overview’, ACAPS portal, (30 December 2022). Accessed on 05 June 2024
https://www.acaps.org/country/bangladesh/crisis/ rohingya-refugees
[60] Humanitarian
Response to the Fire in Rohingya Refugee Camp 11, 5 March 2023 Cox’s Bazar,
Bangladesh, 6 March 2023. (Online) accessed on 05 June 2024.
last accessed on 22 December 2024
[61] Jamshed M Kazi, ‘Who Will Bear
the Financial Burden of Supporting the Rohingyas in Bangladesh?’, The Diplomat,
October 30, 2021)
[62] Ibid
[63] Palma P, ‘Funding on Decline,
Challenges Up’ (The Daily Star, August 24, 2021)
[64] ‘The Growing Cost of Doing Right
by the Rohingya’ (Dhaka Tribune, August 27, 2021)
[65] ‘Lack of Funds Forces WFP to Cut
Rations for Rohingya in Bangladesh’ (World Food Programme, February 17, 2023)
[66] Tom Andrews, UN
Special Rapporteur on Myanmar. “I have spoken with desperate families in
the camps who have already had to cut back on essential food items due to a
spike in prices. Reversing these
cuts in food aid is literally a matter of life and death for
Rohingya families.” UN News, Global
perspective Human Stories, Food Rationing for Rohingya Refugees a ‘matter of
life and death’: Rights Expert, 2March, 2023. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/03/1134052, last accessed on 22
December 2024
[67] Ibid
[68] T. F. Joehnk, How the Rohingya Crisis is Changing
Bangladesh’ (The New York Times, Oct. 6, 2017).
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/06/opinion/rohin gya-bangladesh-myanmar.html, last accessed on 22 December 2024
[69] Kudrat-E-Khuda (Babu),
‘The Impacts and Challenges to Host Country Bangladesh Due to Sheltering the
Rohingya Refugees’ (2020) 6 (1) Cogent
Social Sciences.
[70] UNHCR, Refugee Policy Review Framwork, Country
Summery as 30 Jun at 2020, available at RPRF-Country-Summary-Bangladesh. See
also, Roger Zetter, and Héloïse Ruaudel. "Refugees’
right to work and access to labor markets–An assessment." World Bank Global Program on Forced
Displacement (GPFD) and the Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and
Development (KNOMAD) Thematic Working Group on Forced Migration. KNOMAD Working
Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank Group (2016).
[71] Considering refugees as foreigners they are regulated
by the Foreigners Act of 1946. And their entry, stay and exit are regulated by
the Registration of Foreigners Act 1939; Passport Act 1920; Bangladesh
Citizenship (Temporary Provision) order 1972 •; Extradition Act 1974; Naturalization
Act 1926 etc. While
Muslim Family Ordinance 1961 is applicable for all Muslim Citizen of
Bangladesh, this has been interpreted as non-applicability to refugee and non-citizen
resident. Even marriage between Rohingya
refugees and Bangladeshis are prohibited.Read further, Ban on marriage
with Rohingya refugees, 11 July 2024, The Daily Star, https://www.thedailystar.net/ban-on-marriage-with-rohingya-refugees-32826. Babul Hossain
v. the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, HCD , Writ Petition 2017.
[72] Bangladesh ratified core Human Rights instruments,
including the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (UDHR), Article 25 states that everyone has
the right to a standard of living adequate for their own health and wellbeing
and that of their family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care
and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of
livelihood in the circumstances beyond their control. ICCPR, the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 ( ICSCER) , CRC, CAT,
CEDAW, etc.
[73] The Prevention of Oppression
Against Women and Children Act 2000; The Domestic Violence Act 2010; The Child
Marriage Restraint Act 2017; The Children Act 2013.
[74] The Constitution of the People???'s
Republic of Bangladesh 1972, Article 32
[75] The Constitution of the People???'s
Republic of Bangladesh 1972, Article 33
[76] Alam, Ashraful, et al.
"Impact of Rohingya refugees on food prices in Bangladesh: Evidence from a
natural experiment." World Development 154 (2022):
105873.
[77]
Marcus Franda “Food Policy and Politics in Bangladesh” India
Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs , (1981) Vol. 37 ,at 165
[78], Nurul Islam, ‘Food Strategy and Development in Bangladesh’,
(1089) 3284 International Food Policy Research Institute 37.
[79] Athur Mabiso, et al. Refugees,
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Humanitarian Assistance to Development in Protracted Refugee Situations’,
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[80] Paul A. Dorosh, ‘Food Price
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[81] Bangladesh Law Commission, A
Study on Ground Situation of Right to Food in Bangladesh, Report prepared by
BLC and facilitated by OXFAM in Bangladesh, May 2015.
[82] Jonathan Brooks,, and
Alan Matthews. ‘Trade Dimensions of Food Security. (2015), available at https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2015/02/trade-dimensions-of-food-security_g17a25ce/5js65xn790nv-en.pdf, last accessed on 10th March
2025.
[83] Von Grebmer et al. ‘Global Hunger Index: Hunger and
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[84] Oseph Glauber and David Laborde,
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[85] The Importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation
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[86] ‘The Impacts and Policy
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[87] Hannah Ritchie, ‘How Could the
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[88] Xinshen Diao, Paul A. Dorosh, et al. ‘Bangladesh:
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[89] Ibid (n-66)
[90] Hans Meijl et al.
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[92] The scholarship assumed that if the conflict did not
block Ukraine’s wheat export, the global price would increase by up to 0.5% as
a result of the decrease in Ukraine’s wheat production. Read further, Faqin Lin et al., ‘The Impact of Russia-Ukraine
Conflict on Global Food Security’, (2023) 36 Global Food Security.
[93] FAO, 2022b. FAO food price
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[95] ‘Nobuhiro Hosoe, ‘The cost of war: Impact of
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[96] Ibid
[97] Sanctions
were adopted in many sectors. In the trade sector, the export and import of
arms was forbidden, as was the export of dual-use goods for military use. In
addition, exports of certain types of goods related to oil exploration and
production were banned. Read further, Gohar
Samvel Sedrakyan, ‘Ukraine War-Induced Sanctions against Russia: Consequences
on Transition Economies’, (2022) 44 (5) Journal
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[98] FAO, ‘The State of Agricultural
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[99] Major food crises in 2022 Bangladesh (Cox’s Bazar),
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[100] Ibid
[101] Xinshen Diao, et al.
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[103] Gershon Feder and others,
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[104] Fatemeh
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[105] Daniel P. Ahn,, and
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[106] Countries, Japan, India, and China reduced wheat
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(2023) 45 (2) Journal of Policy
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[107] Rahman Sobhan, Politics of Food
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[108] United Nations, Sustainable
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[109] Kaushik Basu, ‘Bangladesh at 50’
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[110] Kashem M and Faroque M, ‘A
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[111] Agricultural and Rural Finance, https://www.bb.org.bd/pub/annual/anreport/AR2010-11/chap08.pdf, last accessed on 10th March 2025.
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[113] Ibid
Article Information
THE IMPACT OF ARMED CONFLICT ON FOOD SECURITY: A CASE STUDY OF BANGLADESH
Authors: MD FARHAN RASHED, DR. MAFRUZA SULTANA
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2025/03/15
- Issue 7
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