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COFFEE COMMERCE: AN ANALYSIS OF THE HARMONIOUS INTERPRETATIONS OF THE LAWS OF ASIA PACIFIC AND LATIN AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GLOBAL TRADE REGIME
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COFFEE COMMERCE: AN ANALYSIS OF THE
HARMONIOUS INTERPRETATIONS OF THE LAWS OF ASIA PACIFIC AND LATIN AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS
TO THE GLOBAL TRADE REGIME.
AUTHORED BY - ATHUL KRISHNAN.
LLM (International Trade and Economic
Law).
Amity Law School, Noida Amity
University, Uttar Pradesh.
2023-2024.
PREFACE
In an era when commerce is the lifeblood of economies all over the world,
the complex dynamics of trade
relations are still developing and entwining economies, legal systems, and cultures. "Coffee Commerce: An
Analysis of the Harmonious Interpretations of the Laws of Asia Pacific and Latin American
Contributions to the Global Trade Regime" explores the intriguing area where the complexity of international trade law and the aroma of coffee
coexist.
This book takes the reader on a historical tour, tracing the roots of
coffee as a commodity around the
world and its significant influence on the economies of Latin America and Asia Pacific. Coffee's story is one of adaptability, resiliency, and synergy
with the always changing currents of trade, from the lush farms
hidden amid the foggy highlands of Colombia to the vibrant markets of Southeast
Asia.
The interaction of the complex web of regionally specific
economic and cultural
practices with the legal frameworks governing international trade forms the central theme of this investigation.
This book disentangles the threads that unite disparate legal traditions,
cultures, and aspirations for global economic
integration by methodically analysing and illuminating the complex
interpretations of trade laws within the contexts of Asia Pacific and Latin America.
Additionally, "Coffee Commerce" provides a
pertinent analysis of the
opportunities and difficulties faced
by countries that produce coffee as they attempt to navigate the intricate international trade environment. The book
offers insights into the tactics used by stakeholders to promote fair trade relations while defending the interests
of their respective communities, from tariff
fights to sustainability programs.
As we embark
on this intellectual odyssey, I invite readers to savor not only the rich aroma
of freshly brewed
coffee but also the intricate symphony
of legal principles, cultural heritage, and economic
imperatives that shape the global commerce of this beloved beverage. May this journey
inspire a deeper
appreciation for the interconnectedness of our world and the enduring legacy
of coffee as a catalyst for international cooperation and prosperity.
INTRODUCTION:
Coffee is a major crop grown on plantations in India, mostly cultivated[1] in
Karnataka (57%), Kerala (24%), and
Tamil Nadu (9%), as well as, to a lesser degree, in non-traditional regions such as Andhra Pradesh (8%), Orissa
(9%), and the North Eastern States (10%). Tamil Nadu's Pulneys, Shevroys, Anamalai's, and Nilgiris districts, as
well as Karnataka's Chickmagalur, Coorg, and
Hassan districts, and Kerala's Wayanad, Idukki, and Nelliampathys
are the primary locations for coffee cultivation. With an area of 3,55,102 hectares (ha) in 2003–04, India produced
roughly 2,75,225 metric tonnes (MT) of coffee
annually from the economically important Arabica and Robusta kinds.
Roughly 98% of the 1,78,308 coffee
holdings are on smaller plots of land, with fewer than 10 hectares (ha) per household. About 60% of the coffee grown
in the nation comes from smallholders, who also occupy 71% of the land used for coffee cultivation. Huge holdings comprising the remaining 2% of the total land occupy 29% of the production and account for 40% of the entire output.
During 2003–2004, the national average
productivity was 944 kg/ha, with Arabica and Robusta producing 713 and 1,175 kg/ha, respectively.
India is the
birthplace of both washed and unwashed (cherry) coffees. While Robusta beans are more usually processed using the
"Cherry Process," Arabica beans are more commonly processed using the "Wet Process"
to make plantation coffee. However, wet processing produces Robusta parchment of high quality, which is exported
for roughly $300/MT and makes up
around 15-20% of the country's Robusta production. Monsooned Coffee is another speciality coffee that India produces
and exports. It's great for espresso and has a unique flavour profile compared
to other coffees.
A substantial
portion of India's coffee market is export[2]
driven, with exports accounting for over 70% of total output. Before 1996, all
of the coffee grown in the nation was sold by the Coffee Board through two separate
auctions: one for the local market and another for export.
The whole harvest was brought in via
the Coffee Board's Pool Depots and then kept and processed in authorised coffee curing factories. The coffees
that were sent to the Board's Depots
were all checked for quality and the farmers were paid according to how good
their cups were. Coffees that scored
above the Fair Average Quality (FAQ) were awarded premium points, while lots that scored below the FAQ were
deducted in the equivalent amounts.
Both the local and international markets benefited substantially from this
system's assistance in preserving quality.
The Indian coffee business was
gradually liberalised from 1993 to 1996, giving growers complete freedom to sell their coffees independently, in keeping
with the liberalisation of the Indian
economy that began in the early 1990s. Coffee Arabica and Robusta are the two
most important coffee bean species
from a business perspective. More than 3,000 feet in elevation is ideal for Arabica bean cultivation. The
coffees grown from this species are of the highest quality and have the most aromatic and flavorful qualities.
Caffeine content is usually half that
of Robusta beans in these. Although 80% of the world's coffee comes from
Arabica beans, only 10% of that is
suitable for gourmet coffee. It is common practice to cultivate Robusta beans at lower elevations.
Compared to Arabica trees, Robusta trees are more disease resistant, easier to cultivate, and yield greater
quantities of coffee. The flavour of Robusta
beans is often described as woodsy and astringent. In cases where more caffeine
or a cheaper price is required,
they are utilised. Adding a tiny proportion of cream and complexity, it is a
common practice in many Italian
espresso mixes.
2.2
WHAT IS COFFEE?
Coffee trees are an evergreen and
grow to heights of 20 feet. To simplify harvesting, the trees are pruned from 8 to 10 feet. Coffee[3]
cherries ripen at different times, so they are
predominantly picked by hand. It takes
approximately 2,000 Arabica cherries to produce just one pound of roasted coffee. Since each cherry contains two beans, your one pound of
coffee is derived from 4,000 coffee
beans. The average coffee tree only produces one to two pounds of roasted coffee
per year, and takes
four to five years to produce its first crop.
The coffee
plant first produces delicate clusters of white blossoms, resembling jasmine in shape and scent.
These blossoms last only a few days.
Small green coffee cherries then begin to appear
and ripen to yellow... red... and finally almost black, within six to nine months.
Once the
coffee cherries are picked, they are transported for processing. The fruit is
then removed from the seed by
one of two methods. The natural
or dry process, where the cherries are dried in the sun or in dryers, and
the fruit is then separated from the bean by processing them through a mechanical husker. Or, by a superior soaking
method known as the wet process, which produces beans
which are referred to as
washed coffees.
The green beans are then dried, sized, sorted, graded and selected,
usually all by hand. The beans are
then bagged and are ready for shipment to local roasters around the world. Few products
we use require so much in terms of human effort. The two commercially significant species of coffee
beans are: coffea arabica,
and coffea robusta.
ARABICA
Arabica beans grow best at altitudes over 3,000 feet. This species
produces superior quality
coffees, which possess the greatest flavour and aromatic
characteristics. They typically contain
half the caffeine of the Robusta beans. Arabica production represents 80% of
the world's coffee trade, however, only 10% of this meets speciality coffee standards.
ROBUSTA
Robusta beans are usually grown at lower elevations. Robusta trees are
easier to grow, produce higher
yields, and are more disease resistant than the Arabica species. Robusta beans usually
possess a woody,
astringent flavour. They are used when a lower price or additional
caffeine is desired. A small percentage is typically added to many Italian espresso
blends for the additional crema and complexity
they contribute.[4]
In addition to the species
of the coffee, many other factors contribute to the overall
quality of the green beans. Seed stock, plantation
location, soil composition, altitude, weather
conditions, fertilization, cultivation, harvesting, and processing
methods, will all have a dramatic influence
on the finished product.
2.3
THE RICH HISTORY
OF COFFEE
The history
and development of the coffee industry is intriguing, from its chance discovery
to its rapid expansion through trade and empire. Whilst the Western history of
coffee is only some four hundred years old, in the East coffee was widely
consumed as a beverage possibly as long ago as 800 BC. Indeed Homer and
countless Arabian legends tell the story of a mysterious black and bitter
beverage with powers of stimulation, and at the turn of the first Millennium the
physician Avicenna was known to have administered coffee as a medicine.
The discovery of every popular
stimulant cultivates mythology, and there is the quaint legend of a Yemeni shepherd named Kaldi who was
said to have first noted the stimulant properties of coffee as he tended
his sheep. It is claimed that he noticed that the sheep became hyperactive after eating the red
"cherries" from a certain plant when they changed
pastures.
Inquisitive he tried a few himself,
and soon became as hyperactive as his herd. A passing monk heard his story and boiled the berries, from which he distilled a bitter beverage
capable of dispersing sleep and weariness.
Another legend is said to have given
us the name "mocha". An Arabian named Omar had been banished to the desert with his followers to die of
starvation. In his desperation he boiled
and ate the fruit from an unknown plant which it is said saved them. Their
survival was taken as a religious
sign by the residents of the nearby town of Mocha, after which the plant and its beverage
are named.
From its very introduction coffee's
invigorating powers have understandably linked it with religion, and each tradition claims its own unique affiliation
with the plant. Islamic legend ascribes the discovery of coffee to the devout Sheikh Omar, who is said to have found coffee growing
wild whilst living
as a recluse in Mocha, a famous
coffee producing region
of the Yemen. He is said to
have boiled some of the berries and discovered the stimulating effect of the resulting brew upon administering it
to locals stricken with a mysterious ailment, thereby curing them. The Sheikh went on to cure the King of Mocha's
daughter with coffee. The wonderous medicine
soon found its way to Mecca where the first coffee houses are claimed to have arisen. Although these ‘Kaveh Kanes' were originally religious meeting places,
they soon became popular places of
social gathering.
The Arabic[5]
word for coffee ‘kahwah' is also a word for wine, as the pulp of the coffee
bean was often fermented to make a
potent liquor. Although the Koran outlaws intoxicating beverages, it was successfully argued
that coffee was more a stimulant than an intoxicant and the liquor
remained. However coffee was discovered, the fact remains that the coffee plant originated from the Ethiopian region of
Kaffa. The Ethiopian Galla tribe are known to have widely used coffee as a foodstuff, but not as a drink. It is
believed that the monks of Ethiopia may
have chewed on the berries as a stimulant for centuries before it was first
brewed as a hot drink. Galla huntsmen
would wrap coffee beans in animal fat as their only source of nutrition whilst on raiding parties. The
use of coffee as a stimulant may thus have originated in Africa around 575 A.D. where the beans were so important that
they were even used as money. From
the Eastern Africa the use of coffee spread to the Yemen, Arabia and Egypt where it entered popular daily life and
culture. Exactly where and when coffee was first cultivated is still disputed, but most authorities believe that
it was first grown in Arabia near the
Red Sea around 675 AD.
The Turks were perhaps the first
people to drink coffee as an infusion, often adding spices such as clove, cinnamon, cardamom and
anise to the brew. However the Arabian texts dating from around 900 AD refer to an Ethiopian drink known as ‘buna',
similar to the Ethiopian word for
brewed coffee. It was however to be many centuries before coffee was introduced
to countries outside the Arab
world, whose inhabitants believed it to be a precious commodity and guarded its secret jealously. So
central did coffee become in the Turkish way of life, that Turkish law made it legal for a woman to
divorce her husband if he failed to provide her with her daily quota of coffee. In fact the export of the plant
from the Moslem world was strictly forbidden, and the actual
spread of coffee,
initially to the East, was started illegally. The Arab traders are
credited with first introducing coffee to Sri Lanka as early as 1505, and an
Arab by the name of Baba Budan allegedly smuggled beans to some mountains near
Mysore in South-Western India on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca in the 17th
century. There he started a small plantation where the descendants of those
original plants are still to be found still growing fruitfully today.
By
1453 coffee had reached
Constantinople with the expansion of the Ottoman
Empire, and the world's first coffee shop, Kiva Han,
opened there in 1475. The first coffee houses of Constantinople were opened in 1554, and their advent provoked
religiously inspired riots. Perhaps
it was only the profitability of taxing the nascent coffee trade that allowed
it to establish its roots securely in
other nations. By the late 16th Century the first tradesmen had introduced the eastern elixir into the
European culture, and this became a lucrative business for the Venetian
traders by 1615.[6]
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries coffee houses proliferated
throughout Europe, establishing a social habit that has persisted for over 400 years. Although
most of the coffee exported to European markets came from
the ports of Alexandria and Smyrna, the scale of the demand for coffee and the size of the export taxes imposed
at these ports led European traders
to try cultivating coffee in other countries. With the explosion in the
popularity of coffee houses the
European powers were soon competing against each other throughout the 17th Century to establish coffee
plantations in their respective colonies. In 1658 the Dutch began the large scale cultivation of Mocha
in Sri Lanka, and by 1699 they had successfully transplanted cuttings to Java, and by 1718 to Surinam.
The history of
the introduction of the coffee plant to the Americas began in 1714 when the French succeeded in bringing a live
cutting of a coffee tree to the island of Martinique in the West Indies. From its successful
introduction there coffee was taken to South America, and was first grown in North Brazil around
1727. However the coffee plant failed to thrive in the poor climate of Northern Brazil, and this caused cultivation to
move first to Rio de Janeiro, and
then to San Paolo and Minas, where the coffee plant found its ideal habitat.
Coffee growing began to develop
in earnest until it became
the most important
economic resource of Brazil,
accounting for 97% of world coffee production at the beginning of the 20th
Century, all from that first cutting in Martinique. It was not until 1878 that the coffee tree finally
returned to its ancestral home, when the British ironically established the first plantations of Kenya's future coffee industry
on the door step of Ethiopia.
Coffee begins
its story in the United States almost four hundred years ago, when Captain John Smith helped to found the ill-fated
colony of Virginia at Jamestown. However by 1668 coffee had replaced beer as the favourite breakfast drink of
the New York city, and "The Boston
Tea Party" of 1773 made drinking coffee a patriotic statement. The
consumption of coffee continued to
grow aided by such American industrial innovations as the packing roast coffee in vacuum tins and the invention
of instant soluble coffee at the beginning of the 20th Century, and also by the invention of freeze dried coffee by
Nestle in 1938 as a solution to surplus world coffee production.
The advent of
Prohibition in 1920 saw coffee sales boom, and by 1940 the US had[7] become the world's primary importer of
coffee, accounting for 70% of the global harvest. The entry of the United States into the Second World War even
led to widespread panic hoarding of coffee which forced its rationing.
No
recreational drink, with the obvious exception of alcohol, has caused quite as
much religious exception and fervour
as the introduction of coffee. In 1454 the Mufti of Aden visited Ethiopia and was reportedly impressed with the drink,
which cured him of some affliction.
His approval soon made it a popular beverage amongst the tribes of the Yemen who adopted it in religious ceremonies and
introduced it to Mecca. It was introduced widely throughout Islam and became almost synonymous with the Muslim
world, ironically in much the same way as coffee is identified
with the American way of life today, so much so that in 1615 upon its introduction to Venice certain
clerics suggested that it should be excommunicated as the "Devil's
work". However coffee was popularised by Pope Clement VIII who is said to have enjoyed
it so much that rather than banishing it he baptized
it, reportedly exclaiming that
"coffee is so delicious it would be a pity to let the infidels (Moslems)
have exclusive use of it."
From its very introduction coffee's invigorating powers have
understandably linked it with religion,
and each tradition claims its own unique affiliation with the plant. Islamic
legend ascribes the discovery of coffee to the devout Sheikh Omar, who is said to have found coffee
growing wild whilst living as a recluse in Mocha, a famous coffee producing
region of the Yemen. He is said to
have boiled some of the berries and discovered the stimulating effect of the resulting brew upon administering it
to locals stricken with a mysterious ailment, thereby curing them. The Sheikh went on to cure the King of Mocha's
daughter with coffee. The wonderous medicine
soon found its way to Mecca where the first coffee houses are claimed to have arisen. Although these ‘Kaveh Kanes' were originally religious meeting places,
they soon became popular places of
social gathering.
The Arabic
word for coffee ‘kahwah' is also a word for wine, as the pulp of the coffee
bean was often fermented to make a
potent liquor. Although the Koran outlaws intoxicating beverages, it was successfully argued that coffee was more a
stimulant than an intoxicant and the
liquor remained.
Not all
Islamic clerics were content with the widespread introduction of coffee to
their religious culture however, and
religious divisions over coffee in the Islamic world finally came to a head in Mecca.
In 1511 the then governor Khair Beg saw coffee being
drunk in a mosque as a preparation for a night vigil. In a fit of religious rage he drove the worshippers from the mosque and ordered all the coffee houses in Mecca to
be closed.[8]
The drinking
of coffee was further condemned by two Persian doctors who resented the popularity of coffee as a local cure amongst
melancholic patients, who might otherwise have visited their physicians.
However the
‘mufti' of Mecca argued for coffee. Finally the debate was resolved when the Sultan of Cairo intervened and reprimanded Khair Beg for unilaterally banning
a drink which was widely
enjoyed in Cairo without even consulting with his superior, and the very next year had him put to death on charges of
embezzlement. Thus the coffee culture survived in Mecca.
2.4
HISTORICAL GLIMPSES OF COFFEE
Besides the
first greenhouse, the coffee plant was being worked on so it would grow in less
stringent environments. To facilitate the mixing of the coffee plants, grafting
was developed. Prior to the development of grafting, artificial pollination was
used to mix plants. Graphing worked a lot better in changing the genetic variants
which a coffee plant can have. So not only was the first greenhouse made to
house a coffee plant, but a new method of genetic plant mixing also can be attributed
to the coffee plant.
Francisco de Mello Palheta of Brazil
in 1727 was sent to French Guinea to obtain coffee seeds. Like the Arabians,
and the Dutch, the French
did not want their coffee
plants cultivated by other countries
either. Legend has it, de Mello charmed the French governor's wife and she buried some coffee seeds in a bouquet
of flowers. So, again coffee was swiped and brought
to Brazil and Mexico where coffee cultivation got going around 1729. Another
story has it that a coffee seed was
imported into Surinam in the year 1719, and a coffee seed from there or Cayenne reached Brazil in 1723.
It was not until 1767 that the first coffee estate in Brazil is said to have been planted.
Then around 1893 the coffee plant
completed its journey around the world where coffee plants were introduced in Kenya and Tanzania. Thus, the coffee
plant was the first plant to be cultivated around the world.
Robusta coffee grows indigenously in
Uganda and the Congo. The second coming of the
Robusta coffee took place around the year 1902. Africa was just being
explored by the Europeans. When the
Europeans found Robusta coffee, the seeds were exported right away. The Robusta coffee plants found the way to Madagascar, West Africa, Angola,
West Indies, and Vietnam. This was because even as
late as the 1900's, having fertile coffee beans for export is a crime in most coffee growing countries. Since
Central Africa was not well controlled,
explorers took what they wanted and the spread of Robusta coffee began on a relatively large scale.[9]
After World
War I, the coffee plant spread to just about everywhere coffee could grow. Due to the war, some countries
got formed, others
got eliminated, and many got broken
up. World War II did the same thing. Many
countries went through changes in coffee growing as disease, ignorance, and weather wiped out whole plantations of
coffee plants. At times, some countries
did not have coffee growing for whole decades. As economics and intelligence change, coffee growing has been
reintroduced in many of the countries which gave up growing coffee. The coffee plant is not as protected as it used
to be from the standpoint of hording.
It is protected from the standpoint of damage however. So, coffee plants
finally found their way into homes.
2.5
THE LEGEND
It was a
shepherd, called Kaldi, who discovered the use of the coffee bean about four centuries
ago, in a region of Abyssinia[10]
(Ethiopia). This shepherd drew his attention to some goats, which after eating
reddish berries from an evergreen bush became very active and vivacious. This
happened several times and the shepherd decided to taste these strange berries for
himself. Raw berries were hard to chew, so he took some to the village. The
shepherd decided to roast them to make them edible. He tasted some roast beans and
his sleepy eyes got wide open. All village people liked it as it kept awake during
long prayers. While experimenting with the beans, people crushed the roasted
seeds into powder and poured boiling water to make a tasty drink. Word of this discovery
spread to a local monastery. It was there that monks experimented with drinks
made from the berries. This ‘brew' kept them alert and able to continue their
writing and prayer long into the night. So, in this way the coffee grains were
used to brew the delicious beverage consumed all over the world nowadays.
Though green beans were used in a boiled infusion beverage
well before 1000AD,
roasting to produce something akin to modern day
coffees does not seem to have any reliable history until around 1200AD. However spice roasting was well established
in the Middle East long before this
time and coffee could easily have been included in the wide range of condiments produced
by roasting.
EARLY CULTIVATION IN ARABIA
Coffee [11]berries
were transported from Ethiopia to the Arabian peninsula, and were first cultivated in what today is
the country of Yemen.
From there, coffee travelled to Turkey where coffee beans
were roasted for the first time over open fires. The roasted beans were crushed,
and then boiled in water, creating a crude version
of the beverage we enjoy today.
The Arabs were the first, not only to
cultivate coffee but also to begin its trade. By XV century, coffee was being grown in the Yemeni district of Arabia
and by the XVI it was known in Persia, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. It's popularity was perhaps due, in part, to the fact that Muslims, forbidden alcoholic drink
by Koran, found the energizing properties of coffee to be an acceptable substitute. Yemen was the primary source for
coffee beans during this time and the
Arabians eagerly guarded and protected their increasingly valuable coffee- producing
plant.
Though coffee as a crop was wide spread through Arabia and North
Africa, the resulting crop was
distributed through the Red Sea port of "Al Makha" or Mocha. The
trade in Arabica coffee was jealously
guarded by the Mocha traders for many years enabling them to control the supply and command high prices. This
was achieved by only allowing the export of unviable
coffee beans, having been roasted or in some other way heat-treated. Only with
the growth of trade with the outside
world and the realization of the economic potential of coffee caused pressure on the monopoly the Arabian traders
held over the coffee trade.
COFFEE REACHES INDONESIA
Soon, however, the coffee plants were transported
and successfully cultivated by the Dutch on
the Indonesian island of Java and later to the islands of Sumatra and Celebes.
Through trade and exchange by various
European colonies, greenhouses and botanical gardens in Austria and Holland were soon
speckled with this exotic
plant species. The Dutch proved very successful with this new coffee crop,
producing and shipping coffee more cheaply than their Arabian counterparts to the coffee-craving Europeans. In
1650, the first coffeehouse opened its doors in Oxford, England,
its proprietor a Turkish Jew named Jacob.
In France, the first coffeehouse was opened in 1672.
By 1843, there were thousands of coffeehouses throughout Europe and the American
colonies.
THE GIFT THAT CHANGED THE WORLD
Coffee first arrived [12]on
the European continent by means of Venetian trade merchants. Once in Europe this new beverage fell under
harsh criticism from the Catholic church. Many felt the pope should ban coffee, calling it the drink of the devil.
To their surprise, the Pope, already a coffee
drinker, blessed coffee
declaring it a truly
Christian beverage.
Coffee houses spread quickly across
Europe becoming centers for intellectual exchange. Many great minds of Europe
used this beverage, and forum, as a springboard to heightened thought
and creativity.
In
the 1700's, coffee found its way to the Americas by means
of a
French infantry captain
who nurtured one small plant on his long journey across the Atlantic.
This one plant, transplanted to the Caribbean Island
of Martinique, became the predecessor of over 19 million trees on the island within 50
years. It was from this humble beginning that the coffee plant found its way to the rest of the tropical regions of the
South and the Central America. The
popularity of coffee in Europe during the 18th century made it a valuable tool
for barter and gifting. Wanting to
please the king of France, the Mayor of Amsterdam presented King Louis XIV with a single coffee tree as a
gift. The king planted the tree in the Royal Botanical Garden in Paris where the heat and humidity replicated the
Yemen climate and the coffee tree flourished.
In
America at this time, only small
amounts of coffee beans were imported to the colonies
for many years. Eventually,
however, Dutch and French smugglers did introduce beans in great quantity, and coffeehouses opened in New
York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and elsewhere.
One famous coffeehouse[13]
in New England was the Green Dragon in Boston. At first it was popular with British officers, but in
later years it came to be the gathering place of John Adams, Paul Revere and other revolutionaries plotting
against England.
Cultivation of coffee in the Americas
began during the 1720’s when a French naval officer named Gabriel de Clieu transported a single seedling from the
King's Royal Botanical Garden to the island colony of
Martinique. Though terrible
storms destroyed most of the cargo and nearly sank the ship, de Clieu protected the vulnerable coffee
plant and delivered it safely. Little did he know that this seedling would become the rootstock for
all of the coffee trees throughout the Caribbean, the South and the Central America.
A ROMANTIC EXCHANGE
AND BRAZIL
Brazil is the largest exporter of
coffee in the world. But the journey of coffee to this country was nearly as remarkable as that of de Clieu to Martinique. The French showed little interest in sharing this valuable coffee crop
with other colonial powers in the Americas. In 1727, Brazilian Francisco de Mello Palheta approached the Governor of
French Guiana about obtaining
seedlings and was flatly refused. But the Governor's wife was taken by the handsome Brazilian, and as a going away
gift gave him a bouquet of flowers with coffee
seeds hidden within.
When the seeds arrived in Brazil
they were nurtured
and flourished.
THE BIRTH OF COFFEEHOUSES
The social qualities of coffee were
quickly evident and it became a drink for many in public places. The original "coffee houses" in the Near
East were similar to those today
- a
gathering place for
conversation, entertainment and the exchange of ideas among intellectuals while enjoying a good cup of coffee. In 1650,
the first coffeehouse opened its doors in Oxford, England, its proprietor a Turkish Jew named Jacob. In France,
the first coffeehouse opened in 1672.
By 1843, there were thousands of coffeehouses throughout Europe and the
American colonies.
By the 17th century[14],
word of the coffee beverage had traveled across the European continent. With increasing demand and the popularity of coffeehouses in England, France, Germany and other countries, coffee became a permanent part of the landscape and daily life.
In fact, by the middle of the 17th century, London alone sported between
300 to 2,000 coffeehouses.
Coffee was not immune to controversy during these times, however. During
the 13th to 17th centuries a person
drinking coffee, or violating coffeehouse restrictions, in the Turkish Ottoman
Empire (Turkey) could suffer
punishment of severe beatings or even be put to death. When coffee made its way to Italy during
the 17th century it was labeled an invention of Satan and condemned
by many local clergy.
2.6
GROWING
COFFEE
Coffee
berries are picked by hand by labourers who receive payment by the basketful.
As of 2003, payment per basket is between US$2.00 to $0.10 with the
overwhelming majority of the labourers receiving payment at the lower end. An
experienced coffee picker can collect up to 6-7 baskets a day. Depending on the
grower, coffee pickers are sometimes specifically instructed not to pick green
coffee berries since the seeds in the berries are not fully formed or mature.
This discernment typically only occurs with growers who harvest for higher end specialty
coffee where pickers are paid better for their labour.
Mixes of green
and red berries, or just green berries, are used to produce cheaper mass consumer
coffee beans, which are characterized by a displeasurable bitter/astringent flavour and a sharp greenish odour. Red berries,
with its higher aromatic oil and lower organic acid content are more fragrant, smooth, and mellow. As such coffee
picking is one of the most important
stages in coffee production, and is the chief determinant for the quality of
the end product. Picked coffee berries are collected and defruited[15] within hours of picking.
Defruiting
The coffee berries are a type of drupe, with fruit flesh directly
covering the coffee bean.
After harvesting, the flesh of the
coffee berry must be quickly removed by soaking, scouring and mechanical rubbing. This stage is critical in preserving the coffee flavours
since the fruit is
quick to ferment in coffee growing climates, and will give the resulting coffee
a disagreeable odour. The defruited
coffee bean is flushed with water to remove clinging fruit and additional sugars
before drying.
Drying
Coffee beans are spread
over a large concrete
or rock surface where they are dried by air and
sunlight. The beans are repeatedly raked into rows and spread out over
the course of several days until they are largely dry. At this stage, the beans are referred
to as "green coffee".
Sorting
The first step
in preparation is sorting of beans by colour and size. Discoloured, rotten, and damaged
beans are also removed at this point.
In many less developed countries, hand sorting is still
done because of the low cost of labour. Elsewhere, beans are sorted
automatically by sophisticated machines
that employ CCD cameras and can determine both size and colour.
Automatic
sorting is cost-effective for large producers where quantity and throughput are important factors in production.
Aging
Although it is
still widely debated, certain types of green coffee are believed to improve
with age; especially those that are
valued for their low acidity, such as coffees from Indonesia or India. Several of these coffee producers
sell coffee beans that have been aged for as long as 3 years, with some as long as 8 years. However, most coffee experts agree that a green coffee peaks in flavor and freshness within one
year of harvest, because over-aged coffee beans will lose much of their essential
oil content.
Roasting
The roasting
process is integral to producing a savory cup of coffee. When roasted, the
green coffee bean expands to nearly
double its original size, changing in colour and density. As the bean absorbs heat, the colour shifts to
yellow and then to a light "cinnamon" brown. During this stage the moisture in the beans is
expelled. When the inside of the bean reaches about 400 degrees Fahrenheit, it begins to turn brown
and the oil is released
from the interior
of the bean.
This oil
contains the distinctive compounds which give coffee its flavour; the more oil released,
the stronger the flavour. Coffee
beans will crack during the roasting process, not unlike popping popcorn.
"First crack"[16]
and "second crack" are benchmarks that a roaster will use to gauge how the roast progresses.
The beans will continue to darken and the oils will begin to be expelled
to the surface until the beans are
removed from the heat source.
At lighter
roasts, the bean will exhibit more of its "origin flavour"-the
flavours created in the bean by the
soil and weather conditions in the location where it was grown. Coffee beans from famous regions like Java and Kenya
are usually roasted lightly so their signature
characteristics dominate the flavor. A roasting method native to the
Ipoh town in Malaysia involves the
inclusion of butter and sugar during the roasting process, producing a variety
of roast known as the Ipoh "white" coffee.
As the beans
darken to a deep brown, the origin flavours of the bean are eclipsed by the flavours created by the roasting process
itself. At darker roasts, the "roast flavour" is so dominant
that it can be difficult
to distinguish the origin of the beans used in the roast.
These roasts are sold by the
degree of roast, ranging from "Vienna Roast" to "French
Roast" and beyond. The dividing
line between extremely dark roast and "burnt" is a matter of some debate. Contrary to popular belief, the
darker roasts and more strongly flavoured coffees do not deliver any more caffeine than lighter roasts. In the United
States, major national coffee suppliers
tailor their product to tastes in particular regions of the country; for
instance, a can of ground coffee
purchased in the northeast or northwest will contain a darker roast than an identically appearing can purchased
in the central United States.
In the 19th
century coffee was usually bought in the form of green beans and roasted in a frying pan. This form of roasting requires
much skill to do well, and fell out of favour when vacuum sealing of pre-roasted coffee became possible. Today
home roasting is becoming popular again. Computerized drum roasters are available which simplify home roasting,
and some home roasters will simply roast in an oven or in air popcorn makers.
Because coffee emits CO2 for days
after it is roasted, one must allow the coffee to degas before it can be packaged in sealed containers. For this
reason, many roasters who package whole beans
immediately after roasting do so in bags with one-way valves,
allowing the CO2 to escape but
nothing in. This CO2 also affects the flavor
of the brewed coffee, and most experts
recommend a
two- to five-day "resting" period post-roast for the CO2 to
sufficiently escape. Once roasted,
the volatile compounds that give coffee its complex flavors dissipate quickly. [17]Despite
the varying claims of "what is fresh" when it comes to coffee, the
industry leaders in specialty coffee generally agree that roasted
coffee should be ground and brewed no more
than about 14 days off-the-roast. Some companies have tried to extend the
freshness using a nitrogen-infusion
system that flushes the inert gas into the roasted coffee, replacing the oxygen, ostensibly reducing oxidation.
However, as is said in the coffee industry, "the proof is in the cup."
2.7
SOCIAL
ASPECT OF COFFEE
The United States
is the largest market for coffee, followed by Germany. The Nordic countries consume
the most coffee per capita, with Finland, Norway and Denmark trading the top spot
depending on the year. However, consumption has also vastly increased in the United
Kingdom in recent years.
Coffee is so popular in the Americas,
the Middle East, and Europe that many restaurants specialize in coffee; these are called "coffeehouses"
or "cafés". Most cafés also serve tea, sandwiches, pastries, and other light refreshments (some of
which may be dunked into the drink).
Some shops are miniature cafés that specialize in coffee-to-go for hurried
travelers, who may visit these on
their way to work as a substitute for breakfast. Some provide other services, such as wireless internet access
(thus the name, "internet café" - which has carried over
to stores that provide internet service without
any coffee) for their customers.
In some countries, notably in
northern Europe, coffee parties are a popular form of entertaining. Besides coffee, the host or hostess at the coffee
party also serves cake and pastries, sometimes homemade.
Coffee plays a large[18]
role in much history and literature because of the large effects the coffee industry has had on cultures where
it is produced or consumed. Coffee is often mentioned
as one of the main economic goods used in imperial control
of trade, and with
colonized trade patterns in "goods" such as slaves, coffee, and
sugar, which defined Brazilian trade, for example, for centuries.
Coffee in culture or trade is a central theme and prominently referenced in much poetry, fiction, and regional history.
"Die Reading," by Joey Parks, is a
modern novel centered around a New Zealand barista/barrista (and his
lifestyle), which is a person who
works in a coffeehouse and generally knows the aromas, names, recipes and special
effects of espressos and other coffee beverages.
Part of the
appeal of coffee is taste, this is true: rich and dark and aromatic. But there
is no denying that bound up in the
pleasure of the daily occasion, is happy anticipation of that pharmaceutical kick. I know that many
people drink decaffeinated, but to me, without the buzz I don't care so much about the delicious aroma nor, to be truthful, about life in general.
Coffee drinking is nice alone, but one can go to a cafe and drink it
too! It is so sociable, sipping the
ol' cup of Joe together with other enthusiastic addicts: young and old,
students and housewives, business
moguls and out-of-work actors, artists, doctors, lawyers, and dog walkers,
all happily sipping
in one big caffeine-induced haze of happiness.
As addictions
go, coffee seems harmless enough and, unlike some addictions, relatively affordable. And according to a British
study, coffee drinkers show a lower suicide rate than non-coffee drinkers, and an even more recent study showed mental
functions operated as a higher level
when coffee was poured into the cup, though sad to say the study also showed that the coffee drinkers were more easily
swayed as far as their
opinions went, so happy were they with life.
In this
chapter an overall picture is given regarding the Coffee and its Production,
Growing, Marketing process
and the like have been dealt with. It is strongly
felt that coffee marketing and exporting is an essential ingredient, in case of all the
agricultural sector income. This chapter
also focuses on the Coffee in India, Indian Coffee Marketing System, the SWOT analysis of Coffee industries and the
like. It also highlights on the key events in the in the history of Coffee.
Coffee is one
of the important plantation crops in the country. Although it is an important exportable item, the domestic market for
coffee also assumes importance as the growers and traders are vulnerable to the vagaries of export market
fluctuations. In fact, in the post- liberalization period,
the relative value realization has declined for coffee exports.
Moreover, since the
beginning of the implementation of the WTO agreement, spot export prices of coffee have fluctuated a lot. Therefore,
coffee growers may have to tap and nurture domestic market as well
In the present study an attempt
is made to study the Marketing of Coffee in India.
This study is undertaken with the following
main objectives
·
To study the origin, growth and development of the coffee
plantations and industry in India
·
To study the issues connected with the marketing of Coffee
The
concluding chapter of "Coffee Commerce: An Analysis of the Harmonious Interpretations
of the Laws of Asia Pacific and Latin American Contributions to the Global Trade
Regime" explores the critical role that coffee plays in promoting trade
relations between the regions of Latin America and Asia Pacific. This
investigation has highlighted a number of important findings:
Economic
Significance: Coffee is a commodity and a cultural symbol that is
essential to international trade. Its
economic importance cannot be emphasized, especially in the Asia- Pacific
and Latin American
regions, where its trade and cultivation have stimulated economic
expansion.
Legal Frameworks: A detailed analysis of the legal frameworks controlling the coffee tradeb demonstrates
the intricate interactions between national laws, international treaties, and regional agreements. Although there are
differences, there is a discernible tendency toward harmonization and collaboration in the interpretation and application of these laws in order to promote
more seamless trade ties.
Bilateral
Partnerships: The investigation sheds insight on the emergence of
bilateral partnerships in the coffee trade between countries in Latin America and Asia Pacific. These collaborations are characterized by a dedication to
sustainable development techniques, reciprocal respect for legal frameworks, and shared economic goals.
Vibrant
cross-regional cultural exchange: Beyond business dealings, the coffee
trade promotes a vibrant cross-regional cultural exchange. It facilitates the exchange of traditions, values, and practices, which fortifies
social bonds and promotes mutual understanding
amongst various populations.
Opportunities
and Challenges: Despite tremendous advancements in fostering
collaboration and harmonizing legal interpretations, difficulties still exist.
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India, 1999
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Article Information
COFFEE COMMERCE: AN ANALYSIS OF THE HARMONIOUS INTERPRETATIONS OF THE LAWS OF ASIA PACIFIC AND LATIN AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE GLOBAL TRADE REGIME
Authors: ATHUL KRISHNAN
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/05/19
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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