INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR LEGAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

NEED OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN STARTUPS: AN ANALYSIS BY - TANVI SHARMA & KRITIKA MALIK

Authors : TANVI SHARMA & KRITIKA MALIK

Registration ID : 108162 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8162 & IJLRA8163

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : sundriyaltanvi32@gmail.com & kritikamalik2802@gmail.com

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LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON AIR POLLUTION (LAW & POLICY) AND ITS MITIGATING FACTORS BY - V. NIVETHA

Authors : V. NIVETHA

Registration ID : 108161 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8161

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : nivispecial@gmail.com

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Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-73399685/LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON AIR POLLUTION (LAW & POLICY) AN

COMBATING THE MODERN PLAGUE: HUMAN TRAFFICKING BY - SUMIT KUMAR

Authors : SUMIT KUMAR

Registration ID : 108160 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8160

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : sumitkumarr9695@gmail.com

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Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-37168239/COMBATING THE MODERN PLAGUE: HUMAN TRAFFICKING

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN LAW: TRANSFORMING LEGAL PRACTICE AND ETHICS BY - DR. RISHU DEV BANSAL

Authors : DR. RISHU DEV BANSAL

Registration ID : 108159 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8159

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : salonisharma2905@gmail.com

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Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-88118288/ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN LAW: TRANSFORMING LEGAL

RAPE AS A WEAPON OF WAR: A MULTI-PERSPECTIVE ANALYSIS BY - SHILPA KHANDELWAL

Authors : SHILPA KHANDELWAL

Registration ID : 108157 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8157

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : salonisharma2905@gmail.com

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Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-24254657/RAPE AS A WEAPON OF WAR: A MULTI-PERSPECTIVE ANALY

WATCHING THE WATCHDOGS: IMPROVING REGULATION AND ACCOUNTABILITY OF NGOS BY - CHATRUGUN KHALDHANIA

Authors : CHATRUGUN KHALDHANIA

Registration ID : 108156 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8156

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : salonisharma2905@gmail.com

Page No : 18 | No of times Downloads: 0065

Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-82776668/WATCHING THE WATCHDOGS: IMPROVING REGULATION AND A

DECODING THE UNIFORM CIVIL CODE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF UTTARAKHANDS LANDMARK LEGISLATION BY - DR. MANOJ KUMAR SHARMA

Authors : DR. MANOJ KUMAR SHARMA

Registration ID : 108155 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8155

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : salonisharma2905@gmail.com

Page No : 14 | No of times Downloads: 0065

Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-43988639/DECODING THE UNIFORM CIVIL CODE: A CRITICAL ANALYS

THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM BY - NISHANT BARDOSHIYA

Authors : NISHANT BARDOSHIYA

Registration ID : 108154 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8154

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : advnishantbardoshiya@gmail.com

Page No : 9 | No of times Downloads: 0065

Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-64239863/THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CRI

BIPIN CHANDER JAISINGHBHAI VS PRABHAWATI BY: DHITI ALOK DOKANIA

Authors : DHITI ALOK DOKANIA

Registration ID : 108153 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8153

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : 21010126183@symlaw.ac.in

Page No : 10 | No of times Downloads: 0065

Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-77227939/BIPIN CHANDER JAISINGHBHAI VS PRABHAWATI

BREAKING THE SOUND BARRIER: NAVIGATING THE LEGAL TURBULENCE OF SUPERSONIC AND HYPERSONIC AIRCRAFT DEVELOPMENT BY - SHUBHADIP GHATAK & APOORVA SAXENA

Authors : SHUBHADIP GHATAK & APOORVA SAXENA

Registration ID : 108151 | Published Paper ID: IJLRA8151 & IJLRA8152

Year : July-2024 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

Approved ISSN : 2582-6433 | Country : Delhi, India

Email Id : shubhadip.ghatak@gmail.com

Page No : 20 | No of times Downloads: 0065

Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/07.2024-66253754/BREAKING THE SOUND BARRIER: NAVIGATING THE LEGAL T

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IJLRA	N. Raj Kumar ; Kamble Shivadayal . "Design of Fault Tolerance Parallel FFT’s Using Xilinx 14.5v" Iconic Research And Engineering Journals Volume 5 Issue 8 2022 Page 1-6
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[1] Name of Author 1 – Ms. Tanvi Sharma, Research Scholar, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi. Contact Number +918431779486 (sundriyaltanvi32@gmail.com)

[2] Ms. Kritika Malik, 3^rd year Law Student, JIMS Greater Noida, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi. Contact Number +917455812281 (kritikamalik2802@gmail.com)

[3] https://online.law.pitt.edu/blog/corporate-governance-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters

[4] https://www.thecorporategovernanceinstitute.com/insights/lexicon/why-does-corporate-governance-matter-a-look-back-at-history/

[5] https://www.nascollege.org/e%20cotent%2010-4- 20/dr%20rekha%20garg/Regulatory%20framework%20for%20Corporate%20Governance%20in%20India%20M%20COM%20II%2017-4.pdf

[6] https://www.ijllr.com/post/corporate-governance-issues-in-indian-start-up-culture-a-critical-analysis

[7] https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/ensuring-solid-foundation-corporate-governance-startups

[8] https://www.azeusconvene.com/articles/board-of-directors-governance-fundamentals-and-roles

[9]https://www.complianceonline.com/dictionary/Disclosure_and_Transparency.html#:~:text=By%20disclosing%20and%20making%20transparent,organization%20and%20improves%20its%20credibility.

[10] https://www.crowe.com/vn/insights/internal-audit-publication/faq/a4-corporate-governance

[11] https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/the-risks-of-poor-governance-to-investors-in-india/articleshow/96190185.cms?from=mdr

[12] https://idbinvest.org/sites/default/files/2021-04/IBGC%20Segmentos%20-%20Corporate%20Governance%20for%20Startups%20%26%20Scale-Ups.pdf

[13] https://aprioboardportal.com/news/how-to-ensure-good-corporate-governance/

[14] https://www.nicmar.ac.in/news/article/indian-startup-revolution

[15] https://www.ricago.com/blog/the-impact-of-regulatory-compliance-on-indian-companies

[16] https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08985626.2022.2146758

[17] https://www.thecorporategovernanceinstitute.com/insights/guides/future-of-corporate-governance/

[1] Subhash Kumar Vs state of Bihar, AIR 1991 SC 420

[4] Locus Standi means, ‘A Place of standing in court. A right of appearance in a court of justice. A right of appearance in a court of justice, or before a legislative body, on a given question’, Black’s Law Dictionary, 6 _thEdn, West Publishing Company.

[5] Paramjit S. Jaswal, Directive Principles Jurisprudence And Socio- Economic Justice in India, 543(1996)

[6] Paramjit S. Jaswal and Nishtha Jaswal , Human Right And The Law, 172-180(1996).

[8] Ayesh Dias,, ‘Judicial Activism in the Development and Enforcement of Environmental Law : some Comparative

Insights from the Indian Experience’, Journal of environmental Law, no 6, (1994) .

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[1] Bachpan Bachao Andolan v. Union of InAdia & Others, (2011) 5 SCC 1

[2] State of Maharashtra v. Chandrabhan, (1983) 3 SCC 387

[3] People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) v. Union of India & Others, (1997) 1 SCC 301

[4] Prajjwala v. Union of India & Others, (2005) 3 SCC 719

[1] Sterling Miller, Artificial intelligence + generative AI, legal.thomsonreuters, (Oct. 10, 2023, 9:29 PM), https://legal.thomsonreuters.com/en/insights/articles/ai-and-its-impact-on-legal-technology

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[4] Steve Lohr, A.I. Is Coming for Lawyers, Again, nytimes, (Oct. 10, 2023, 9:29 PM), https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/10/technology/ai-is-coming-for-lawyers-again.html

[5] AIT Staff Writer, Transforming Legal Landscape: How AI is Becoming The Ultimate Sidekick for Lawyers, aithority, Oct. 10, 2023, 9:29 PM), https://aithority.com/ai-machine-learning-projects/transforming-legal- landscape-how-ai-is-becoming-the-ultimate-sidekick-forlawyers/#:~:text=AI's%20ability%20to%20automate%20repetitive,to%20cost%20savings%20for%20client.

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[10] Namita Viswanath, Shreya Suri, Ananya Dash, Nikhil Vijayanambi, Ruhi Kanakia and Naqeeb Ahmed Kazia, FAQs On The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, mondaq, (Oct. 10, 2023, 9:29 PM), https://www.mondaq.com/india/data-protection/1360522/faqs-on-the-digital-personal-data-protection-act-2023

[12] Christopher Jan Benitez, AI For Lawyers: How AI Tools Can Enhance Your Law Firm, onthemap, (Oct. 10, 2023, 9:29 PM), https://www.onthemap.com/blog/ai-for-lawyers/

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[1]Cohn, C. (2013). Women and Wars. UK: Polity Press.

[2] (1997). Violence against women in situations of armed conflict and displacement. World Health Organisation.

[3] Clifford, C. (2008). Rape as a weapon of war and its long term effects on victims and society. 7th global conference:violence and context of hostility, (p. 13). Budapest.

[4] Rule no 93. Rape and other forms of sexual violence. (2005). Retrieved july 20, 2024, from International Committee Of The Red Cross: http://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule93

[5] Robinson, B. (2009). Rape of women during wartime. Religious tolerance.

[6] Cunningham, A. R. (2008). Rape as a weapon of genocide. Genocide studies and prevention: An international journal.

[7] Aydelott, D. (1993). Mass rape during war: Prostecuting Bonian rapists under international law. Emory international law review.

[8] (1996). Shattered lives: Sexual violence during Rwandan genocide and its aftermath. Human rights watch .

[9] (2002). The war within the war: Sexual violence against women and girls in Eastern Congo. Human Rights Watch.

[10] War on women: Time for action to end sexual violence in conflict. (2011, May). Retrieved July 1, 2024, from Nobel womens initative: nobelwomensinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09war-on-women-web.pdf

[11] International, Amnesty. (2004). Lives blown apart: Crimes against women in times of conflict. London: Amnesty International Publications.

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[1] A Survey on Non Profit Institutions in India - Some Findings, Central Statistical Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India, September 2009.

[2] Pushpa Aman Singh, NGO Accountability in the Indian Context (December, 2009), http://www.guidestarinternational.org/SiteImages/file/NGO%20Accountability%20in%20the

%20Indian%20 Context.pdf

[3] Michael Szporluk, A Framework for Understanding Accountability of International NGOs and Global Good Governance, 16 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 339

[4] Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code.

[5] Rajesh Tandon, Board Games: Governance and Accountability of NGOs, http://www.wtrc- tmed.org/wtrc/resources/Board%20Games.pdf

[6] Christopher Tracy, The Growing Role of Non-Governmental Organisations, 89 Am. Soc'y Int'l L. Proc. 413.

[7] TANJA A. BORZEL & THOMAS RISSE, COMPLEX SOVEREIGNTY: RECONSTITUTING POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY, p. 195, 203-06 (Edgar Grande & Louis W. Pauly eds., 2004).

[9] P.J. SIMMONA & CHANTAL DE JONGE OUDRAAT, MANAGING GLOBAL ISSUES: LESSONS LEARNED, p. 3, 12 (P.J. Simmons & Chantal de Jonge Oudraat eds., 2001).

[10] TANJA BRUHL, PROCEEDINGS OF THE 2001 BERLIN CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND THE NATION STATE, p. 371, 376-77 (Frank Biermann et al. eds., 2002).

[12] WILLIAM KOREY, NGOs AND THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: A CURIOUS GRAPEVINE (PALGRAVE, New York, 1998).

[13] MOTOKO MEKATA, THE THIRD FORCE: THE RISE OF TRANSNATIONAL CIVIL SOCIETY, p. 143 (Ann M. Florini ed., 2000).

[14] Peter Sutherland, The Doha Development Agenda: Political Challenges to the World Trading System- A Cosmopolitan Perspective, 8 J. INT'L ECON. L. 363, 374 (2005). (Discussing the WTO Secretariat's interest in creating a low-level partnership between the WTO and NGOs).

[15] SIMON ZADEK & MURDOCH GATWARD, BEYOND THE MAGIC BULLET: NGO PERFORMANCE AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE POST-COLD WAR WORLD, p. 169 (Michael Edwards & David Hulme eds., 1996).

[16] Ann Marie Clark, Non-Governmental Organizations and their Influence on International Society, 48 J. INT'L AFF. 507.

[17] Steve Charnovitz, Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, 18 MICH. J. INT'L L. 183.

[18] Steve Charnovitz, Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, 18 MICH. J. INT'L L. 183.

[19] Erik B. Bluemel, Overcoming NGO Accountability Concerns in International Governance, 31 Brook. J. Int'l L. 139.

[20] Jonathan P. Doh & Terrence R. Guay, Globalization and Corporate Social Responsibility: How Nongovernmental Organizations Influence Labor and Environmental Codes of Conduct”, (manuscript on file with Brooklyn Journal of International Law).

[21] Joanne K. Leweler, International Commercial Arbitration as a Model for Resolving Treaty Disputes, 21 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 379 (1989).

[22] Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States, (Oct. 14, 1996, 17 U.S.T. 1270, 575 U.N.T.S. 159).

[23] RUTH MAYNE, REGULATING INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS: BEYOND LIBERALIZATION, p. 235 (Sol Picciotto & Ruth Mayne eds., 1999).

[24] Paul Wapner, Politics Beyond the State: Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics, 47 World Pol. 311 (1995).

[25] Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Art. 11(5), Annex III, para. 1, Annex IV(10), Sept. 16, 1987, 1522 U.N.T.S. 3, 26 I.L.M. 1541, adjusted by London Amendments, June 29, 1990, 20 I.L.M. 537, Nairobi Amendments, June 21, 1991, and Copenhagen Amendments, Nov. 23-25, 1993, 32 I.L.M. 874.

[27] Problems of Governance in the NGO Sector: The Way Out, (Transparency International, Executive Summary), http://www.ti-bangladesh.org/research/ExecSum-NGO-English.pdf

[29] Qiusha Ma, The Governance of NGOs in China Since 1978: How Much Autonomy?, 31 Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Q. 305 (2002).

[31] ‘No national law governs public charitable trusts in India, although many states (particularly Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh) have Public Trusts Acts. In the absence of a Trusts Act in any particular state or territory the general principles of the Indian Trusts Act, 1882 are applied.’

[32] Societies Registration Act, Section 20 (1860).

[39] JEFFREY E. GARTEN, GLOBALIZATION WITHOUT TEARS – A NEW SOCIAL COMPACT FOR CEOs (Harvard Business School Press, 2002).

[41] NGO Regulation Net, Why is Regulation Important,

[42] ‘The opposite is true in, e.g., Switzerland. C. Civ., tit. II, ch. 2, art. 60(1). (“Associations which have a political, religious, scientific, artistic, charitable, social, or any other than an industrial object, acquire the status of a person as soon as they show by their constitution their intention to have a corporate existence.”) Mongolia is similar: “An NGO shall be considered established after the founders have issued a decision to establish the NGO and have approved the NGO’s by- laws.” Such an organization cannot exercise its rights as a legal entity, however, until it has completed the establishment process. The Law of the State of Mongolia on Non- Governmental Organizations, ch. 1, art. 6 (January 31, 1997). Under these laws a civic organization is established when a group of individuals completes required acts, such as the adoption of a constitution, without any involvement of the state.’

[43] The Law of the Kyrgyz Republic on Non-Commercial Organizations, Ch. 2, art. 18 (October 1, 1999). (“Founders of a public association shall convene a constituent meeting and adopt a decision on establishing a public association, approving its Charter, and forming governing and audit bodies.”)

[44] Kenya Societies Act, part IV, Section 17 (1998).

[45] ‘The system in Mongolia may serve as an example. After a completed application is filed, the establishing authority has 30 days within which to establish the civic organization or to refuse establishment. Refusal must be on one of two grounds: The purpose of the organization violates the Mongolian law or another organization with the same name is already established. If neither of these conditions is met, the authority must establish the organization. (Mongolian NGO Law, Art. 16(2))’.

[46] ‘The law of the Republic of Yemen provides (“In the event that the application is refused pursuant to this Law [the Ministry] should notify the founders of the decision to reject the application in writing, giving the reason thereof, and should post this in its bulletin board of the Ministry or the relevant office within ten days of the date of decision.”) Article 11 creates a 60- day appeal period from the day that the applicants are notified of the rejection.’

[47] ‘The European Parliament issued a resolution requesting that “all discriminatory measures based on nationality that affect the right to belong to, form or administer an association be rapidly abolished throughout the Community, in respect of citizens of Member States.” Eur. Parl. Doc. A2 196/86 (March 13, 1987). The European Court of Justice ruled against Belgium’s nationality restrictions for participation in civic organizations. Case C-172/98, Kingdom of Belgium v. Commission (June 29, 1999); On June 30, 2000, the existing legislation was amended to remove the requirements.’

[48] ‘The Estonian law provides that people acting on behalf of an association in the process of establishment are liable for the actions on behalf of the organization. When the organization is established, the obligations automatically transfer to the organization “if the persons who entered into the transaction had the right to enter into the transaction in the name of the association.” If the person did not have that right, then the obligations only transfer from the individual to the organization if all the members agree. The law does not specify what constitutes “having the right” to enter into a transaction on behalf of an organization. (The Non- Profit Association Acts of the Republic of Estonia, ch. 1, Section 11(2-3) (June 6, 1996, amended June 5, 2002).’

[49] ‘In Japan, special types of legal persons (e.g., “Public Interest Legal Persons” such as associations and foundations, social welfare corporations, educational corporations, religious corporations, and medical corporations) are all permitted to be established under different laws and by different ministries. The creation of the new “special nonprofit activities legal person” created in 1998 simply added another category and another responsible state agency (the Economic Planning Agency) to this already complex system. Thus, choice of form is a very important issue in Japan.’

[50] ‘Greece is one example. See the Greek Civil Code, C. Civ., ch. 4, § 79, § 81. Albania is another. See Law on the Registration of Non-profit Organizations, no. 8789, ch. 2, art. 5 (May 7, 2001).’

[51] ‘Some countries use the ministry of justice. See e.g., Law of Mongolia on Non-Governmental Organizations, ch. 3, art. 15 (January 31, 1997); In South Africa, Egypt, and Pakistan, the ministry of social welfare or its equivalent is the place where civic organizations are established. (Nonprofit Organisations Act of the Republic of South Africa, ch. 3, Section 11 (1997); Law on Private Associations and Establishments Law No. 84 of 2002 of Egypt, ch. 1, art. 3; Registration as a Non-Profit Company under Section 42 of the Companies Ordinance Act 1984 of Pakistan, Section 4.3.1).’

[52] ‘The Regulations on the Registration of Social Organizations of the Peoples’ Republic of China state that the registration may occur at the national level or at local branches of the Ministry of Civil Affairs.’

[53] ‘See, e.g., The Charity Commission in Moldova has nine members, with at least three members who represent the public sector and who are not employed by the state. Commission members have a five-year term, which permits a degree of professionalization that comes with time. (Law of the Republic of Moldova on Public Associations, No. 837-XIII, ch. 5, art. 34-37 (May 17, 1996).’

[54] Leon E. Irish, Robert Kushen, Karla W. Simon, Guidelines for Laws Affecting Civic Organisations, (Prepared by Open Society Institute in cooperation with the International Center for Not-for- Profit Law, New York, Second Edition).

[55] ‘South Africa has placed its registry on the Internet. The online registry lists each civic organization’s name and address, the registration number, the date registered, and any date that the organization was deregistered, wound up, or dissolved. The online registry fulfills the legal obligation of the director of nonprofit organizations to publish annually the registry and the names of all organizations removed from the registry in the previous year “in the Gazette and at least one other widely circulated means of communication.” (Nonprofit Organizations Act, no. 71, vol. 340, no. 18487, ch. 2, Section 24(7) (December 3, 1997). The Czech Republic and a number of other countries in Central and Eastern Europe have also placed their registries on the Internet.’

[56] ‘For example, the law of the Republic of Yemen requires that the government, prior to suing for dissolution, issue “the association or foundation three notices within six months to remedy the violation.” (The Law on Associations and Foundations of the Republic of Yemen, Law No. (1) for the Year 2001, ch. 4, Section I, art. 44 (2).’

[57] Law of the Republic of Indonesia, No. 16 of 2001, Concerning Foundations, ch. 2, art. 17 (2001).

[58] ‘The limits on fundraising regulation in the United States are largely a product of jurisprudence under the First Amendment to the Constitution, which protects freedom of speech.’

[59] unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/.../UNPAN016333.pdf

[60] ‘The United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) decided not to require audited financial statements by civic organizations immediately after the transition precisely because of concerns over the availability of qualified, independent accountants. See UNMIK Administrative Direction No. 2002/9, Section 1 (March 29, 2002). This is not, however, a common situation, given the range of accounting skills taught in modern universities around the world.’

[61] ‘A civic organization that receives some tax benefits need not be offered all available tax benefits in the jurisdiction. It may be that some tax benefits are offered to a subset of PBOs, and further tax benefits are extended to a smaller subset. In the United States, a distinction is made between “charitable” organizations, to which tax deductible contributions can be made, and “social welfare” organizations, for which tax deduction is not available. (26 U.S.C. Section 501 (c)(3) & Section 501 (c)(4) (2000) Both types of organizations, however, are generally exempt from income taxes.’

[62] ‘Mongolia exempts MBOs from taxation on membership fees and members’ contributions. It exempts PBOs from taxation on membership fees, all contributions and inherited funds, and income from mission related economic activities.’

[64] ‘Under a tax designation scheme adopted in Hungary, however, an individual may direct that 1% of the taxes he or she pays go to an “eminent” PBO of his or her choice. (Act No. CXXVI on the Public Application of a Certain Portion of Personal Income Tax upon Taxpayer’s Order, Section 3(1) (1996) Lithuania, Slovakia, and Poland have adopted similar laws. Such tax designation schemes do not give a deduction or credit and do not require the individual to file a tax return, which means that all taxpayers are able to participate in supporting civic organizations.’

[65] ‘In Russia individuals can claim deductions only up to 1 percent of their income, and business entities are limited to 3 percent. In the United States, by contrast, individuals can claim up to 50 percent and businesses can claim up to 10 percent. In Australia, there is no limit at all.’

[66] Industry Commission, Charitable Organizations in Australia 311-312 & App. J (1995).

[3] Mohd. Ahmed Khan Vs. Shah Bano Begum and Ors. AIR 1985 SC 945, MANU/SC/0194/1985

[5] Sarla Mudgal and Ors. vs. Union of India (UOI) and Ors AIR 1995 SC 1531, MANU/SC/0290/1995

[6] John Vallamattom and Ors. Vs. Union of India AIR 2003 SC 2902, MANU/SC/0480/2003

[7] Jose Paulo Coutinho Vs. Maria Luiza Valentina Pereira and Ors 2019 20 SCC 85, MANU/SC/1257/2019

[8] Law Commission of India, Reform of Family Law, 31 August 2018

[1] Bombay Hindu Divorce Act, 1947, § 3, No. 88, Acts of Parliament, 1947 (India)

[2] Bipin Chander Jaisinghbhai vs Prabhawati, AIR 1957 SC 176

[3] Bombay Hindu Divorce Act, 1947, § 3(1)(d), No. 88, Acts of Parliament, 1947 (India)

[4] Bombay Hindu Divorce Act, 1947, § 2(b), No. 88, Acts of Parliament, 1947 (India)

[1] Richard P. Hallion, Breaking the Sound Barrier: The Army Air Forces and the First Flight of the XS-1, 44 AIR POWER HIST. 4 (1997).

[2] Concorde-Heathrow Airport Users Comm. v. British Airports Auth., [1981] QB 64.

[4] Mohamad Nazri Mohd Ja'afar et al., Progress and development of hypersonic technology: A critical review, 122 PROGRESS IN AEROSPACE SCI. 100696 (2021).

[5] Bernd Liebhardt et al., Supersonic and Hypersonic Aircraft Design: Current and Future, 8 AEROSPACE 139 (2021).

[6] Noise Certification of Supersonic Airplanes, 85 Fed. Reg. 20431 (Apr. 13, 2020) (to be codified at 14 C.F.R. pt. 36).

[7] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., ICAO AND SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT (2021).

[8] Convention on International Civil Aviation, Annex 16: Environmental Protection (9th ed. 2008).

[9] ICAO COMM. ON AVIATION ENV'T PROT., REPORT OF THE TENTH MEETING (2016).

[10] A. Mahashabde et al., Assessing the environmental impacts of aircraft noise and emissions, 47 PROGRESS IN AEROSPACE SCI. 15 (2011).

[11] FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012, Pub. L. No. 112-95, Section 911, 126 Stat. 11, 143-44 (2012).

[12] FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018, Pub. L. No. 115-254, Section 181, 132 Stat. 3186, 3459-60 (2018).

[13] Noise Certification of Supersonic Airplanes, 85 Fed. Reg. 20431 (Apr. 13, 2020) (to be codified at 14 C.F.R. pt. 36).

[15] CLEAN SKY 2 JOINT UNDERTAKING, STRATEGIC RESEARCH AND INNOVATION AGENDA (2015).

[16] European Comm'n, SENECA Project, CORDIS EU RESEARCH RESULTS (2021).

[17] Kokubo Takama et al., A JAXA Approach for Sonic Boom Research, 29TH CONG. INT'L COUNCIL AERONAUTICAL SCI. (2014).

[18] S.A. Ushakov et al., Prospects for the development of supersonic civil aviation in Russia, 714 IOP CONF. SERIES: MATERIALS SCI. & ENG'G (2020).

[19] CIV. AVIATION ADMIN. OF CHINA, DEVELOPMENT OF CHINA'S CIVIL AVIATION INDUSTRY: 2019 ANNUAL REPORT (2019).

[20] Noise Control Act of 1972, 42 U.S.C. Section 4901-4918.

[21] Sierra Club v. Dep't of Transp., 753 F.2d 120 (D.C. Cir. 1985).

[22] Convention on International Civil Aviation, Dec. 7, 1944, 61 Stat. 1180, 15 U.N.T.S. 295.

[23] NAT'L AERONAUTICS & SPACE ADMIN., X-59 QUESST: THE FUTURE OF FLIGHT (2021).

[25] Finding That Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Aircraft Cause or Contribute to Air Pollution That May Reasonably Be Anticipated To Endanger Public Health and Welfare, 81 Fed. Reg. 54422 (Aug. 15, 2016) (to be codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 87, 1068).

[26] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., CARBON OFFSETTING AND REDUCTION SCHEME FOR INTERNATIONAL AVIATION (CORSIA) (2016).

[27] Ctr. for Biological Diversity v. EPA, No. 16-1363 (D.C. Cir. 2019).

[28] Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Sept. 16, 1987, 1522 U.N.T.S. 3.

[29] FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012, Pub. L. No. 112-95, 126 Stat. 11 (2012).

[30] Convention on International Civil Aviation, supra note 22, art. 28.

[31] Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Carriage by Air, May 28, 1999, T.I.A.S. No. 13,038, 2242 U.N.T.S. 309.

[32] Taylor v. FAA, 856 F.3d 1089 (D.C. Cir. 2017).

[33] Noise Certification of Supersonic Airplanes, 85 Fed. Reg. 20431 (Apr. 13, 2020) (to be codified at 14 C.F.R. pt. 36).

[34] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., AIRWORTHINESS MANUAL, DOC 9760 (3d ed. 2014).

[35] In re Air Crash Disaster at Sioux City, Iowa, on July 19, 1989, 781 F. Supp. 1307 (N.D. Ill. 1991).

[37] United States v. Hsu, 155 F.3d 189 (3d Cir. 1998).

[38] Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Apr. 15, 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1C, 1869 U.N.T.S. 299.

[39] Rolls-Royce plc v. United Techs. Corp. [2011] EWCA (Civ) 1589 (Eng.).

[40] Export Control Reform Act of 2018, Pub. L. No. 115-232, 132 Stat. 2208 (2018).

[41] International Traffic in Arms Regulations, 22 C.F.R. Section 120-130 (2024).

[42] Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies (July 12, 1996).

[43] Boom Supersonic and Rolls-Royce End Engine-development Relationship, FLIGHT GLOBAL, Sept. 19, 2022.

[44] United States v. Causby, 328 U.S. 256 (1946).

[45] British Airways Bd. v. Laker Airways Ltd. [1985] AC 58 (HL) (appeal taken from Eng.).

[46] Concorde-Heathrow Airport Users Comm. v. British Airports Auth., [1981] QB 64.

[47] Ctr. for Biological Diversity v. EPA, No. 16-1363 (D.C. Cir. 2019).

[48] In re Air Crash Near Peggy's Cove, Nova Scotia on Sept. 2, 1998, 210 F. Supp. 2d 570 (E.D. Pa. 2002).

[49] Griggs v. Allegheny County, 369 U.S. 84 (1962).

[51] Save Our Heritage Org. v. San Diego City Council, 11 Cal. 5th 1071 (2021).

[52] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., SAFETY MANAGEMENT MANUAL (SMM), DOC 9859 (4th ed. 2018).

[53] Dirk A. Zetzsche et al., Regulating a Revolution: From Regulatory Sandboxes to Smart Regulation, 23 FORDHAM J. CORP. & FIN. L. 31 (2017).

[54] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., CAEP/11 AGREES ON NEW SUPERSONIC NOISE STANDARD (2019).

[55] Agreement on Cooperation in the Regulation of Civil Aviation Safety, U.S.-E.U., June 30, 2011, T.I.A.S. No. 13-51.

[56] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., ICAO VISION ON AVIATION ALTERNATIVE FUELS (2017).

[57] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., CARBON OFFSETTING AND REDUCTION SCHEME FOR INTERNATIONAL AVIATION (CORSIA) (2016).

[58] Alessandro Gardi et al., Multi-objective optimisation of aircraft flight trajectories in the ATM and avionics context, 83 PROGRESS IN AEROSPACE SCI. 1 (2016).

[59] Griggs v. Allegheny County, 369 U.S. 84 (1962).

[60] INT'L CIV. AVIATION ORG., AIRWORTHINESS MANUAL, DOC 9760 (3d ed. 2014).

[61] Eric J. Tuegel et al., Reengineering Aircraft Structural Life Prediction Using a Digital Twin, 2011 INT'L J. AEROSPACE ENG'G 1 (2011).

[62] Parimal Kopardekar et al., Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management (UTM) Concept of Operations, AIAA AVIATION TECH., INTEGRATION, & OPERATIONS CONF. (2016).

[63] U.S. DEP'T OF COM., SPACE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT (2018).

[64] Patent Cooperation Treaty, June 19, 1970, 28 U.S.T. 7645, 1160 U.N.T.S. 231.

[65] U.S. DEP'T OF COM., BUREAU OF INDUS. & SEC., EXPORT CONTROL REFORM ACT OF 2018 AND CONVENTIONAL ARMS TRANSFER POLICY (2019).

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