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[1] LORI B. GIRISHICK, “WOMAN TO WOMAN SEXUAL VIOLENCE”, North-eastern University Press, 2002

[2] CLAIRE COHEN, MALE RAPE IS A FEMINIST ISSUE, Palgrave Mocmillian, 2014

[3] Deborah Zalesne, “When Men Harass Men Is it Sexual Harassment?”, Vol-7, TEMPLE POLITICAL AND CIVIL RIGHTS LAW REVIEW, 395, 395-416,(1998)

[4] Jennifer L. Berdahl, The Sexual Harassment of Men?, Volume 20, PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY, 527, 527-547,(1996)

[5] Rishabh Chopra, The Case for Gender Neutrality in Rape Laws, THE CITIZENS IN , (24 Aug 2022, 10.35am), https://www.thecitizen.in/life/the-case-for-gender-neutrality-in-rape-laws-333857?infinitescroll=1

[6] Simta Singh, Here's Why India Need Gender Neutral Rape Laws, SHE THE PEOPLE, (June 3, 2022), https://www.shethepeople.tv/top-stories/opinion/gender-neutral-rape-laws/

[7] Anushka Yadav, Gender Neutrality of Rape Laws, Volume-4, Issue-4, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW MANAGEMENT AND HUMANITIES, 2155, 2155-2160,(2021)

[8] Nikunj Kulshrestha, Ought the Rape/sexual Assault law in India be Gender-neutral?, SSRN ELECTRONIC JOURNAL,(19 Aug 2019), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345141374_Ought_the_RapeSexual_Assault_Law_in_India_be_Gender-_Neutral

[9] Priya Nandan, Gender-Neutral Laws in India, Volume 5, Issue 1 LJLMH, 2370, 2370-2341,(2022)

[10] Schilt, K., & Westbrook, ''Gender Normals,'' Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality. Gender and Society, 440-464(2009)

[11] Stokes ,Indian law should recognise that men can be raped too, CROLL IN, (Nov. 16, 2022, 6.47 PM), https://scroll.in/article/676510/indias-law-should-recognise%20that-men-can-be-raped-too

[14] Nikunj Kulshrestha, Ought the Rape/sexual Assault law in India be Gender-neutral?, SSRN ELECTRONIC JOURNAL,(19 Aug 2019), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345141374_Ought_the_RapeSexual_Assault_Law_in_India_be_Gender-_Neutral

[15] Navtej Singh Johar v Union of India, (2018) 10 SCC 1

[16] Javaid, A. (2016). Feminism, masculinity and male rape, Journal of Gender studies, 25(3), 283-293

[19] Jessica A Turchik, Myths about Male Rape: A Literature Review, Vol. 13, PSYCHOLOGY OF MEN AND MASCULINITY, 211 211-226( 2012)

[20] Smith, R. M., Parrott, D. J., Swartout, K. M., & Tharp, A. T. Deconstructing hegemonic masculinity: Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 160,(2015)

[21] Stemple L. & Meyer I. H, The sexual victimization of men in America: New data challenge old assumptions. American journal of public health, (2014)

[23] 172nd Law Commission's report, March 25, 2000

[25] Priya Nandan, Gender -neutral Laws In India, Vol. 5, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW MANAGEMENT AND HUMANITIES, 2373, 2370-2381(2022)

[26] Navtej Singh Johar v Union of India (2018) 10 SCC 1

[27] Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses Act, 2012 ,(POSCO)

[28] Priya Nandan, Gender -neutral Laws In India, Vol. 5, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW MANAGEMENT AND HUMANITIES, 2375, 2370-2381(2022)

[30] Priya Patel v. State of M.P [(2006) 6 SCC 263]

[32] Anushka Yadav, Gender Neutrality of Rape Laws, Vol. 4, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LAW MANAGEMENT AND HUMANITIES, 2159, 2155-2160, (2021)

[33] Priya Nandan, Gender -neutral Laws In India, Vol. 5, IJLMH, 2376, 2370-2381(2022)

[35] Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, December 2019

[36] Priya Nandan, Gender -neutral Laws In India, Vol. 5, IJLMH, 2377, 2370-2381(2022)

[37] Kohn, S., Is India the Rape Capital of the World (2013)

[38] Sharma, B. R., & Gupta, M, Gender based violence in India: A never-ending phenomenon. Journal of International Women's Studies, 114-123(2013)

[39] Akhila C, “Why Do We Assume That Men Aren't Raped When The Reality Is Far From It?”, YKA (Nov 17, 2022, 1.44 PM) https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2016/06/male-survivors-of-sexual-violence/

[40] Priya Nandan, Gender -neutral Laws In India, Vol. 5, IJLMH, 2376, 2370-2381(2022)

[41] Anushka Yadav, Gender Neutrality of Rape Laws, Vol. 4, IJLMH, 2159, 2155-2160, (2021)

[42] Nikunj Kulshrestha, Ought the Rape/sexual Assault law in India be Gender-neutral?, SSRN ELECTRONIC JOURNAL,(19 Aug 2019), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/345141374_Ought_the_RapeSexual_Assault_Law_in_India_be_Gender-_Neutral

[45] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966

[46] International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 1976

[47] 172^nd Law Commission Report, March 25, 2000

[49] Akshara Nath, INDIA TODAY, Jun 2, 2022, https://www.indiatoday.in/law/story/kerala-high-court-rape-gender-neutral-offence-remark-1957494-2022-06-02

[7] The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, No. 14, Acts of Parliament, 2013.

[8] Indian Penal Code, 1860, No. 45, Acts of Parliament, 1949.

[3] Civil Procedure Code, 1908, §-11, No. 05, Acts of parliament, 1949 (India).

[4] Avni Tiwari, Res-judicata and right to information, https://cic.gov.in/sites/default/files/Res, 05-04-2023.

[22] Sandy Gail Nyholm, Administrative Law - Res Judicata - Application of Res Judicata to Agencies with Parallel Jurisdiction, https://digitalcommons.du.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article, 06-04-2023.

[24] Brobston v. Darby Borough, 290 Pa. 331, 138 A. 849 (Pa. 1927)

[25] Lowe v. Haggerty, 283 Pa. 459, 129 A. 457 (Pa. 1925)

[26] Dayrao vs state of Uttar Pradesh, 1961 AIR 1457, 1962 SCR (1) 574.

[1] Ukrainian refugees: Challenges in a welcoming Europe

[2] From, Puneet Pathak, International Humanitarian and Refugee Law | 10. Refugee Protection in India

https://www-ebcreader-com-christuniversityncr.knimbus.com/share/990975572_26_5312-5449

[3] UNHCR, ‘Syria Regional Refugee Response’, Last Updated 31 December 2022, < https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria/location/113>

[5] Turkey, Regulation No. 1994/6169 on the Procedures and Principles related to Possible Population Movements and Aliens Arriving in Turkey either as Individuals or in Groups Wishing to Seek Asylum either from Turkey https://www.refworld.org/docid/49746cc62.html

[6] B Frelick, ‘Barriers to Protection: Turkey’s Asylum Regulations’ (1997) 9 (1) International Journal of Refugee Law 8-34, 12; C Soykan, ‘The new draft law on foreigners and international protection in Turkey’ (2012) 2(2) Oxford Monitor of Forced Migration 38-47

[7] Jabari v Turkey App No 40035/98 (ECtHR, 11 November 2000); Abdolkhani and Karimnia v Turkey App No 30471/08 (ECtHR, 22 September 2009); ZNS v Turkey App No 21896/08 (ECtHR, 19 January 2010).

[9] Abhipsha Gochhayat, Protection of Refugees in India, Pg: -7, 9 Nov 2011 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1957146

[10] How killing of Syrian refugee marks an alarming trend in Turkey https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/12/turkey-news-log-jan-12

[11] Syrian refugees in Turkey fear deportation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gR_T-XMM9M4

children-separated-from-mothers-rohingyas-in-india-fear-detention-deportation-813642)

[13] Shreehari paliath Children Separated From Mothers: Rohingyas in India Fear Detention, Deportation, 19 April 2022 (https://www.indiaspend.com/welfare/children-separated-from-mothers-rohingyas-in-india-fear-detention-deportation-813642)

[14] a. Keshmiri v. Turkey, Appl.36370/08, [fin] 13.07.2012;

b. Abdolkhani ve Karimnia v. Turkey App. 30471/08, 22 September 2009

c. M.B. and Others v. Turkey, Appl.36009/08, 15 June 2010

d. Dbouba v. Turkey, Appl. 15916/09, [fin] 13 October 2010

e. Ghorbanov and Others v. Turkey, Appl. 28127/09, [fin] 3 March 2014

[15] Ktaer Abbas Habib Al Qutaifi and ... vs Union Oo India (Uoi) And Ors. on 12 October 1998

[16] Malavika Karlekar v. Union of India, 1992 SCC Online SC 249

[17] National Human Rights Commission v. State of Arunachal Pradesh, (1996) 1 SCC 742

[18] Bogyi v. Union of India, 1989 SCC Online Gau 229

[19] VIII-Addl. Chief Metropolitan Magistrate v. Digvijaya Mote, 2014 SCC Online Kar 4907

[3] “Animal Sacrifice An Essential Religious Practice': Plea In SC Against Kerala HC Judgment Upholding Law Prohibiting Animals and Birds Sacrifices”, LiveLaw, June 25, 2020, available at: https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/animal-sacrifice-an-essential-religious-practice-plea-in-sc against-kerala-hc-judgment-upholding-law-prohibiting-animals-and-birds-sacrifices-158914

[4] Commissioner of Police v. Acharya Jagadishwarananda Avadhuta, (2004) 12 SCC 770, para. 9.

[5] Gautam Bhatia, “Two cheers for the Supreme Court”, The Hindu, Aug. 14, 2017, available at:
https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/two-cheers-for-the-supreme-court/article19547560.ece

[6] Dr. Ismail Faruqui v. Union of India, (1994) 6 SCC 360, para. 78.

[7] Akhil Bharat Goseva Sangh v. State of A.P, (2006) 4 SCC 162, para. 67

[8] Sardar Syedna Taher Saifuddin Saheb v. State of Bombay, AIR 1962 SC 853, para. 17.

[9] Shayara Bano v. Union of India, (2017) 9 SCC 1; Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India, (2018) 1 SCC 791; Joseph Shine v. Union of India, AIR 2018 SC 4898.

[10] The Indian Penal Code, 1862 (Act 45 of 1862), s. 377

[11] M. Karunanidhi v. Union of India, (1979) 3 SCC 431, para. 24

[12] Subhas Bhattacharjee v. State of Tripura, 2019 SCC OnLine Tri 441, para. 127.

[13] Innovative Industries Limited v. ICICI Bank, (2018) 1 SCC 407, para. 42

[14] Girnar Traders v. State of Maharashtra, (2011) 3 SCC 1, para. 187.

[1] Order 1 Rule 8, 8A of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.

[2] Article 32, the Constitution of India.

[3] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966.

[4] AIR 1982 SC 1473.

[5] Baxi, Upendra (1985) “Taking Suffering Seriously: Social Action Litigation in the Supreme Court of India,” Third World Legal Studies: Vol. 4, Article 6. Available at: https://scholar.valpo.edu/twls/vol4/iss1/6

[6] Mohd Haris Usmani, Public Interest Litigation, https://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l273-Public-Interest-Litigation.html.

[7] AIR 1979 SC 1369.

[8] AIR 1982 SC 149.

[9] [2004] INSC 287

[10] Appeal (Civil) 2148 of 1994.

[11] Article 359, the Constitution of India.

[12] Civil Procedure Code, 1908, Order 7 Rule 11.

[13] AIR 1982 SC 1473.

[14] A.I.R. 1974 S.C. 209

[15] AIR 1987 SC 965.

[16] AIR (1987) 4 SCC 463.

[17] AIR 1989, SC 2039.

[18] (1995) 3 SCC 77.

[19] 1984 AIR 802.

[20] (2001) 8 SCC 765.

[21] 1995 SCC (1) 14.

[22] 1997 6 SCC 241.

[1] India Today, Amit Shah exhorts voters to uproot ‘mullah’ Mulayam, rakes up storm, India Today, Updated on: September 5, 2014.

[2] The Indian Express, Apurva Vishwanath, Prophet remarks row: Supreme Court says Nupur Sharma won’t be arrested for now, available at: https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/supreme-court-nupur-sharma-bail-hearing-hate-speech-prophet-mohmmad-8039060), updated on: July 20, 2022, New Delhi.

[3] Tech Crunch, Facebook’s new transparency report now includes data on takedown of bad content including hate speech, Transparency Report, Tech Crunch Commerce Site, Updated on: May 15, 2018.

[4] The Law Commission of India 2017, Report 267, Chapter 2: Legal provisions of Hate Speech in India, page number 5.

[5] Southern Poverty Law Centre, What we do? Available at: Southern Poverty Law Centre.com last visited on: November 29, 2012.

[6] Simon Wiesenthal Centre, New York, Simon Wiesenthal Centre releases 2019 digital terrorism and hate report Card, New York, last updated on: March 14, 2019.

^{^[7]} Libel: it is the written defamation where anything published, print or text message is the part of libel.

^{^[8]} Slander: it is oral defamation statement which includes any words, speech, audio, video contents or any electronic means.

^{^[9]} Black Law Dictionary, The legalities of Hate speech – Black’s Law Dictionary, Published in: law dictionary, available at: Law dictionary Organisation site.

^{^[10]} Hate speech: report 267, Law commission of India, chapter 2: Legal provisions of hate speech, updated on 23^rd March 2017 (India).

^{^[11]} Legal Information Institute, First Amendment, United States Constitution, United States Law, Legal Information Institute, available at https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/first_amendment.

^{^[12]} SNYDER V. PHELPS (No. 09-751) 580 F. 3d 206, affirmed.

[13] The Hindu, The Buck stops with the government to stop hate speech, hate crimes: Supreme Court, updated on: January 13, 2023.

[14] The Hindu, The Buck stops with the government to stop hate speech, hate crime: Supreme Court, Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hate-speeches-complate-menance-we-want-free-and-balanced-press-in-india-sc/article66374675. Updated on: January 14, 2023

^{^[15]} Do something Organisation, New Zealand Mosques Attack: What happened and what you can do, 49 people were killed in two anti-Muslim terrorist attacks on Friday, Do something organisation, updated on March 15, 2019.

^{^[16]}Aljazeera, Kashmir files, hailed by Modi, triggers anti-Muslims hate speech, updated on: March 17, 2022.

^{^[17]} Osborne Clarke, Online harms: The news legal framework for addressing hates speech in France and in Germany, Home headlines UK tech, Media and Commons, Published on June 2^nd, 2020.

^{^[18]} Osborne Clarke, Online harms: The news legal framework for addressing hates speech in France and in Germany, Home headlines UK tech, Media and Commons, Published on June 2^nd, 2020.

^{^[20]} Lisa-Maria N.Neudrat, Computational Propaganda in Germany: A Cautionary Tale, University of Oxford.

^{^[21]} Parth M.N., Shashank Bengali, Rumours of child- kidnapping gangs and other Whatsapp hoaxes are getting people killed in India, Whatsapp, an encrypted messaging service, has become a vehicle for rumours and fake news in India, its biggest market, available at: www.latimes.com (updated on: May 30, 2018).

^{^[22]} Somesh Jha, Delhi Violence: Anurag Thakur ducks question on ‘Goli Maaro’ remark, Business standard site, last updated on: March 06, 2020.

^{^[23]} Opindia, Day after violent protests, provocative slogans appear in Jamia Millia Islamia University campus, accessed on: December 15, 2019.

^{^[26]} See Shreya Singhal versus Union of India, AIR 2015 SC 1523.

^{^[27]} Mojo Story, Hate speech if said with a smile: Court’s startling response, Delhi Riots, Justice Supreme Court Judge Madan Lokur joins Barkha Dutt to discuss the Court’s observations, Daily hunt news, available at: https://youtu.be/8-15AtR_O5Y.

^{^[28]} Jitendra, what is Nazi ideology: Asked by Jitendra, topper learning, updated on: September 28, 2017.

^{^[29]} Alan Bullock & Barun Bullock, Adolf Hitler (Dictator of Germany), News report: Britannica, updated on: 2017.

^{^[30]} Freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1) (a), available at: byjus.com>free-IAS-prep>freedom.

^{^[33]} Kenneth B. Clark & Dark Ghetto 63-64 (1965), journal of American studies, vol.46, no. 4, November 2012, Published by: Cambridge University Press , available at: www.jstor.org/stable/23352469.

^{^[34]} Selma research programme, Hacking Online Hate: Building an Evidence Base for Educators, available at: www. Hacking hate.eu

^{^[35]} Sema Partner, The consequences of online hate speech – teenager’s perspective, available at: Selma researcher, Updated on: April 8, 2019.

^{^[36]} Johnson & N.F et al., Hidden resilience and adaptive dynamics of the global online hate ecology, Bib code: 2019Natur.573.261J. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1494-7. ISSN: 1476-4687. PMID: 31435010. S2CID 201118236, updated on August 21 2019.

^{^[37]} Koen Smilde, Jewish Holocaust: what is holocaust: the meaning of holocaust came from Greek and it means ‘burnt offering’ in the second world war, which was defined sometimes the death of a large group of people, the world holocaust also known as ‘Shoah’, this hate speech genocide was happened between 1933 and 1939, Annefrank Organisation news report, available at www. annefrank.org> go-in-depth.

^{^[38]}Amrita Nayak Dutta, The print news: ‘UPSC jihad’ show offensive, could promote communal attitudes- government in affidavit to Supreme Court, The Print News, Updated on November 18, 2020, available at theprint.in/governance/upsc-jihad-show-offensive-could-promote-communal-attitude-govt-in-affidavit-to-sc/547415/?amp).

^{^[39]}Jayant Sriram, With the Sudarshan TV case, can the Supreme Court defines the contours of hate speech? The Hindu in focus podcast, updated on: September 25, 2020.

^{^[40]} Tania Gupta, Misogyny in India: A virulent form of Hate Speech, The criminal law blog, National Law University (Jodhpur), updated on: September 30, 2020, available at: criminalawstudiesnlij.wordpress.com/2020/09/30/misogyny-in-india-a-virulent-form-of-hate-speech.

^{^[41]} UN Condemns Apps Like ‘Sulli deals’ as a form of hate speech in India, As a form of hate speech in India, updated on: January 12 2022 , available at: www.oulookindia.com/website/story.india-news-sulli-deals-form-of-hate-speech-in-india-must-be-condemned-un-official/409348/amo.

^{^[42]} Bulli Bai app: Three arrested for fake auction of Muslim women in India, BBC News, updated on: January 5, 2022, available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world/asia-india-59835674.amp.

^{^[43]}Prashant Jha, Delhi Riots: Recovery of damage to public property during CAA/NRC protests, Delhi High Court issues notice, Litigation News, Updated on: March 21, 2022. Available at: www.barandbench.com/news/litigation/recovery-of-damage-to-public-property-of-damage-to-public-proerty-during-caanrc-protests-delhi-riots-delhi-high-court-issues-notice.

^{^[44]}Mountazali, Media: Hate speech leads to violence, updated on: April 29, 2019, available at: www.dandc.eu/en/article/civil-war-libya-exacerbated-hate-speech-and-propaganda).

^{^[45]}The Hindu Newspaper, Haridwar hate speech FIR filed for promoting enmity, The Hindu, Updated on: December 24, 2021/ 38022839.

^{^[46]}International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights (adopted on: December 16).

^{^[47]}United Nations General Assembly resolution 2106 (XX), International Convention on the elimination of all from of racial discrimination, OHCHR, adopted on: 21December 1965,

Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments/mechanisms/instrumens/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial.

^{^[48]} European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), art. 10(1) reads: Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and television of frontiers.

^{^[50]} European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), Art. 10 (2) reads: The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interest of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary.

^{^[51]} European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR), Art. 17 reads: Nothing in this Convention may be interpreted as implying for any state, group or person any right to engage in any activity or perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedom.

^{^[52]} See Handyside v. United Kingdom, Application no. 5493/72 (1976).

^{^[53]} THE U.S. Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951, Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, GOI, available at: https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-first-amendment-act-1951.

^{^[57]}INDIA CONST. art. 19, cl.1, sub cl. a, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1142233.

^{^[60]} Universal, New Delhi, The Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), and section: 124A sedition, page number: 42-43.

^{^[61]} The Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), section 124A Sedition, page number: 42, Universal law book, India Code (45 of 1860).

^{^[62]} Bilal Ahmed Kaloo V. State of Andra Pradesh, AIR 1997 7 SCC 431 (India).

^{^[63]} The Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) as amended by The Jammu and Kashmir reorganisation Act, 2019 (34 of 2019), Section 153A, page number: 51-52, Universal law book, India Code (45 of 1860).

^{^[64]}Bilal Ahmed Kaloo V. State of Andhra Pradesh, AIR 1997 SC, Available at: Https://Indiankanoon.Org/doc/639296/.

^{^[65]} Shreya Singhal V. Union of India, AIR 2015 SC 1523.

^{^[66]}The Penal Code (45 of 1860), section 153B, Universal law book, page number: 52 (New Delhi), India Code (45 of 1860).

^{^[67]}The Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), section 295A, Universal Law Book, page no: 105 (New Delhi), India Code (45 of 1860).

^{^[68]}The Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), section 298, Universal Law Book, page no: 105 (New Delhi), India Code (45 of 1860).

^{^[69]} The Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), section 505 (1) and Section 505 (2), Universal Law Book, page no: 195(New Delhi), India Code (45 of 1860).

^{^[70]}The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, section 95, India Procedure Code (2 of 1974), available at: https://indiankannon.org/doc/875455/.

^{^[71]}The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 , section 107, India Procedure Code (2 of 1974), available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1914745/.

^{^[72]}The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, section 144, India Procedure Code (2 of 1974), available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/930621.

^{^[73]}The Representation of the People Act, 1951, section 8, Central government act, India Act (1951), available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1662686.

^{^[74]}The Representation of the People Act, 1951, section 123, Central government act, India Act (1951), available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/62390136 and section 125 in the Representation of the People Act, 1951, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/28226194.

^{^[75]}The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, section 7, India Act (1955), available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1326407).

^{^[76]}The Religious Institutions (Prevention of misuse) Act, 1988, section 3 (g), India Act (1988), available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/77755996.

^{^[77]} The Central Government Act, Section 5 in the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1122855 and Section 6 in the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1158800.

^{^[78]} The Cinematograph Act, 1952, section 4, Central government act, India Act, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1843874. Section 5B in the cinematograph act, 1952, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/441329 and Section 7 in the cinematograph act, 1952 available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1508508.

^{^[79]}The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act of 2000), section 66A,

^{^[80]} Section 69A in the Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act of 2000), section 69A, available at: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/10190353.

^{^[81]} World Health Organisation, Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report-13, World Health Organisation, updated on: February 2, 2020, available at: 20200202-sitrep-13-ncov-v3.pdf.

^{^[82]} Daniel Funke, Fact-checking ‘Pandemic’: A documentary full of false conspiracy theories about the coronavirus, available at: PolitiFact.com, Last updated on: May 7, 2020.

^{^[83]} Anuj Srivas, Facebook saw spikes in hate speech in India after CAA protests and during first COVID lockdown, The Wire, last updated on: November 10, 2021, available at: https://m.thewire.in/article/tech/facebook-saw-spikes-in-the-hate-speech-in-india-after-caa-protests-and-covid-19-lockdown/amp.

^{^[84]} Archit Lohani, Countering Disinformation and Hate Speech Online: Regulation and User Behavioural Change, ORF, https://www.orfonline.org/research/countering-disinformation-and-hate-speech-online/?amp.

^{^[86]}The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act 21 of 2000), Chapter XI: Offences, available at: https://snappar.com/page/information-technology-act-2000-chapter-XI.

^{^[87]} The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act 21 of 2000), section 79.

^{^[88]} The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Act 21 of 2000), section 66A.

^{^[89]} See Shreya Singhal versus Union of India, AIR 2015 SC 1523.

^{^[90]}Anirudh Sunil Kumar, Government defines ‘fake news’ in Parliament; says social media being used of weaponisation of information, Republic World, available at: https://www.republicworld.com/india-news/general-news/governmentdefines-fake-news -in-parliament-says-social-media-being-used-fro-weaponisation-of-information.html (Updated on: July 26, 2018).

“Union Minister Law & Justice, Communications and MeitY Ravi Shankar Prashad have said: Fake news is the type of disinformation which includes fake information through broadcast media, print media, social media or social sites which is harmful for the integrity and security of the nation. He further added that fake news can be made in any form for example it can be spoken, written or visible representation which can damage the agency, data reports or create disturb the society at large”.

^{^[91]} Express News Service (New Delhi), Anti-India content: Centre block 22 You Tube Channels, Express News Service, available at: https://indianexpress.com/article/india/govt-blocks-youtube-channels-anti-india-7853880/lite (updated on: April 6. 2022).

^{^[92]} Australian Association of National Advertisers, A quick guide to the Australian ‘Fake News’ Code, Australian Association of Advertisement, available at: https://aana.au/2020/07/02/a-quick-guide-to-the-australian-fake-news-code/ (updated on: July 2, 2020).

^{^[93]} Law on the fight against information manipulation, Anti-manipulating information manipulation law, Fight against Information manipulation, available at: https://www.senat.fr/dossier-legislatif/ppl17-623. Html (updated on: December 22, 2018)

^{^[94]} Lilian Edwards & Michael Veale, Enslaving the Algorithm: From a Right to an Explanation to a Right to Better Decisions, IEEE Security & Privacy, 2018.

^{^[95]} Network Enforcement Act (Netzdurchsetzunggesetz, NetzDG), available at: https://germanlawarchive.iucomp.org/?p=1245).

^{^[96]} Article 19, Germany: The Act to Improve Enforcement of the Law in Social Networks, Article 19, last updated on: August 2017.

^{^[97]} Amnesty International, Singapore: Social media companies forced to corporate with abusive fake news laws, Amnesty International, available at: https:// www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/02/singapore-social-media-abusive-fake-news-law/ (last updated on: February 19, 2020).

^{^[98]} F Kathleen, Pofma is yet another tool by the Singapore government to supress criticism and dissent, said Forum -Asia and Civicus, the Online Citizen, last updated on: April, 12, 2019.

^{^[99]} See Shreya Singhal V, Union of India, AIR 2015 SC 1523.

^{^[102]} LAW COMMISSION OF INDIA, REPORT 267, MARCH 2017, CHAPTER: 6, PAGE NUMBER: 39.

^{^[103]} The Indian Penal Code, 1860, section 153A, India Code (45 0f 1860).

^{^[104]} The Indian Penal Code, 1860, section 295A, India Code (45 0f 1860).

^{^[107]} Universal’s New Delhi (India), The Constitution of India as amended by The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016, Article 19 clause 2, page number: 12 (Updated on: 2017).

^{^[109]}R.A.V V. City of St. Paul, 505 U.S. 377 (1992).

^{^[112]} Archit Lohani, Countering Disinformation and Hate Speech online: Regulation and User Behavioural Change, available at: https://www.orfonline.org/research/countering-disinformation-and-hatespeech-online (Updated on: January 25 2021).

^{^[113]} RGNUL Student Research Review (RSRR), Broadcasting hate: Media, Law, and Hate Speech in India, updated on: April 8, 2021, available at: https://rsrr.in/2021/04/08/broadcasting-hate-media-law-and-hate-speech.

^{^[114]} Bhadra Sinha, Insidious attempt to vilify Muslims- SC stops Sudarshan News from arising ‘UPSC Jihad’ show, The Print, updated on: September 15, 2020, available at: https://theprint.in/judiciary/insidious-attempt-ti-vilify-muslims-sc-stops-sudarshan-news-from-arising-upsc-jihad-show/503345/?amp.

^{^[115]} Archit Lohani, Countering Disinformation and Hate Speech online: Regulation and User Behavioural Change, available at: https://www.orfonline.org/research/countering-disinformation-and-hatespeech-online, Updated on: January 25 2021.

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[2] A.K Saini, 07-20-4-Sfm, (Sept. 9, 2014), http://archive.nmji.in/archives/Volume-27/Issue-1/27-1-SFM-III.pdf.

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