INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR LEGAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE INDIAN JUDICIARY IN SUPPORTING ARBITRATION: COMPREHENSIVE STUDY By: Beeda Rashmitha Rani Yadav

Authors : Beeda Rashmitha Rani Yadav

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Year : Oct -2023 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

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POWER AND POSITION OF RAJYA SABHA AND THE U.S. SENATE: A COMPARATIVE STUDYBY - DEV DHAR DUBEY

Authors : DEV DHAR DUBEY

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REMOVING THE VEIL OF THE ANTI-DEFECTION LAW IN INDIA BY - MAZIA SIDDIQUI & ABUBAKAR SHAMSI

Authors : MAZIA SIDDIQUI & ABUBAKAR SHAMSI

Registration ID : 106137 Published Paper ID: IJLRA6137 & IJLRA6138

Year : Oct -2023 | Volume : II | Issue : 7

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INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT ARBITRATION UNDER ICSID – ENFORCEMENT AND APPEAL MECHANISM BY - DHARUN LAKSHMAN

Authors : DHARUN LAKSHMAN

Registration ID : 106136 Published Paper ID: IJLRA61336

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UNRAVELING THE LEGAL TAPESTRY: EXPLORING ABORTION LAWS IN INDIA FROM A JURISPRUDENTIAL PERSPECTIVE BY - PRATISTHA PRIYADARSHI & ARUNAV

Authors : PRATISTHA PRIYADARSHI & ARUNAV

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THE INSTANCES AND THE IMPACT OF THE DOCTRINE OF ULTRA VIRES ON ACTS AND ORDERS OF A COMPANY AUTHORED BY - NAKUL SINGHTHE INSTANCES AND THE IMPACT OF THE DOCTRINE OF ULTRA VIRES ON ACTS AND ORDERS OF A COMPANY BY - NAKUL SINGH

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DISPUTE SETTLEMENTS UNDER THE WTO: THE ISSUES AND CHALLENGES BY - KRISHNA MAJUMDAR

Authors : KRISHNA MAJUMDAR

Registration ID : 106132 Published Paper ID: IJLRA6132

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THE DEVADASIS IN INDIA: LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION AND BEYOND BY- Swarnika Tirkey, Hiten Joshi & Rahul Sharma

Authors : Swarnika Tirkey, Hiten Joshi & Rahul Sharma

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REINFORCING ENVIRONMENTAL AND EDUCATIONAL FEDERALISM BY - Swarnika Tirkey, Hiten Joshi & Rahul Sharma

Authors : Swarnika Tirkey, Hiten Joshi & Rahul Sharma

Registration ID : 106126 Published Paper ID: IJLRA6126, IJLRA6127 & IJLRA6128

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FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY: GENDERED NATURE OF VICTIMHOOD By: Mary Christine Delicia. M

Authors : Mary Christine Delicia. M

Registration ID : 106125 Published Paper ID: IJLRA6125

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Doi Link : https://www.doi-ds.org/doilink/10.2023-74442934/FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY: GENDERED NATURE OF VICTIMHOO

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^{^[1]} Kumar A and others, ‘Interpretation and Application of the New York Convention in India’ [2017] Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 445

[2] National Aluminium Co. Ltd. v. Pressteel & Fabrications (P) Ltd (2004) 1 SCC 540

[3] See BALCO, (2012) 9 SCC 552, ¶¶ 194–197 (India) (this is manifest in the discussion in BALCO wherein the Court overruled Bhatia International?s position that the provisions of Part I of the Arbitration Act can be used in foreign seated arbitrations).

[4] See Bhatia Int?l v. Bulk Trading S.A., (2002) 4 SCC 105, ¶¶ 21, 32 (India) [hereinafter “Bhatia International”] (the Bhatia International principle was that the Indian Courts will exercise jurisdiction over interim applications and challenges resulting from arbitrations, unless the intention of the parties was to expressly or impliedly oust the jurisdiction of Indian courts. This means that the Indian Courts would exercise concurrent jurisdiction, along with the courts of the seat of the arbitration).

[5] Hardy Exploration, (2019) 13 SCC 472, ¶¶ 26–27 (India); See United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, G.A. Res. 40/72, U.N. Doc. A/RES/40/72 (Dec. 11, 1985), as amended by G.A. Res. 61/33, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/33 (Dec. 18, 2006) [hereinafter “Model Law”] (the Model Law is similar to the ICC Rules as it also gives the arbitral tribunal the right to decide the seat if the parties have not already specified it).

[6] See Ssangyong Engineering & Construction Co. Ltd. v. National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) 2019 SCC OnLine SC 677, the Supreme Court elucidated and interpreted the grounds for setting aside an award when the party was unable to present its case under Section 34(2)(a)(iii) of the Arbitration & Conciliation Act, 1996 (‘Act’), when arbitral award deals with a dispute not contemplated or falling within the terms of submission under Section 34(2)(a)(iv) of the Act, when the award is in conflict with the public policy of India as provided under Explanation 1 & 2 of Section 34(2)(b)(ii) of the Act and what constitutes patent illegality appearing on the face of the award under Section 34(2A) of the Act.

[7] 1.3 In these Rules: “Award” includes a partial, interim or final award and an award of an Emergency Arbitrator”

[8] See 2019 (8) SCC 714 “appointment of an arbitrator is a judicial power and is not a mere administrative function leaving some degree of judicial intervention; when it comes to the question to examine the existence of a prima facie arbitration agreement, it is always necessary to ensure that the dispute resolution process does not become unnecessarily protracted.”

[9] See Bharat Aluminium Co. v. Kaiser Aluminium Tech. Servs., Inc. (2012) 9 SCC 552, ¶¶ 95 (India); the term “subject matter of the arbitration” cannot be confused with “subject matter of the suit”. The term “subject matter” in Section 2(1)(e) is confined to Part I. It has a reference and connection with the process of dispute resolution. Its purpose is to identify the courts having supervisory control over the arbitration proceedings. Hence, it refers to a court which would essentially be a court of the seat of the arbitration process. In our opinion, the provision in Section 2(1)(e) has to be construed keeping in view the provisions in Section 20 which give recognition to party autonomy.

[10] See Bharat Aluminium Co. v. Kaiser Aluminium Tech. Servs., Inc. (2012) 9 SCC 552, ¶¶ 71–76, 95–117 (India) [hereinafter “BALCO”].

[11] Enercon (India) Ltd & Ors v Enercon GmBH & Anr (2014) 5 SCC 1, ¶¶20 (India); “In the present case, even though the venue of arbitration proceedings has been fixed in London, it cannot be presumed that the parties have intended the seat to be also in London. In an International Commercial Arbitration, venue can often be different from the seat of arbitration. In such circumstances, the hearing of the arbitration will be conducted at the venue fixed by the parties, but this would not bring about a change in the seat of the arbitration”.

[12] See Vijay Karia & Ors. v. Prysmian Cavi E Sistemi SRL & Ors. 2020 SCC OnLine SC 177, ¶¶ 85 (India); “if a foreign award fails to determine a material issue which goes to the root of the matter or fails to decide a claim or counter-claim in its entirety, the award may shock the conscience of the Court [and its enforcement may be refused] on the ground of violation of the public policy of India, in that it would then offend a most basic notion of justice”.

[14] See BGS SGS Soma JV vs. NHPC Ltd. [2019 SCC Online SC 1585], ¶¶ 25-30 (India)

[15] 34 Application for setting aside arbitral award. —

(2) An arbitral award may be set aside by the Court only if—

(b) the Court finds that—

(ii) the arbitral award is in conflict with the public policy of India.

Explanation. —Without prejudice to the generality of sub-clause (ii) it is hereby declared, for the avoidance of any doubt, that an award is in conflict with the public policy of India if the making of the award was induced or affected by fraud or corruption or was in violation of section 75 or section 81.

[16] 48. Conditions for enforcement of foreign awards.—

(2) Enforcement of an arbitral award may also be refused if the Court finds that—

(b) the enforcement of the award would be contrary to the public policy of India. Explanation.—Without prejudice to the generality of clause (b) of this section, it is hereby declared, for the avoidance of any doubt, that an award is in conflict with the public policy of India if the making of the award was induced or affected by fraud or corruption.

[17] See Renusagar Power Company Ltd. v. General Electric Company 1994 Supp (1) SCC 644, ¶¶ 27, (India).

[18] See Renusagar Power Company Ltd. v. General Electric Company 1994 Supp (1) SCC 644, ¶¶ 66, (India); Article V(2)(b) of the New York Convention of 1958 and Section 7(1)(b)(ii) of the Foreign Awards Act do not postulate refusal of recognition and enforcement of a foreign award on the ground that it is contrary to the law of the country of enforcement and the ground of challenge is confined to the recognition and enforcement being contrary to the public policy of the country in which the award is set to be enforced. There is nothing to indicate that the expression "public policy" in Article V(2)(b) of the New York Convention and Section 7(1)(b)(ii) of the Foreign Awards Act is not used in the same sense in which it was used in Article I(c) of the Geneva Convention of 1927 and Section 7(1) of the Protocol and Convention Act of 1937. This would mean that "public policy" in Section 7(1)(b)(ii) has been used in a narrower sense and in order to attract to bar of public policy the enforcement of the award must invoke something more than the violation of the law of India. Since the Foreign Awards Act is concerned with recognition and enforcement of foreign awards which are governed by the principles of private international law, the expression "public policy" in Section 7(1)(b)(ii) of the Foreign Awards Act must necessarily be construed in the sense the doctrine of public policy is applied in the field of private international law. Applying the said criteria it must be held that the enforcement of a foreign award would be refused on the ground that it is contrary to public policy if such enforcement would be contrary to (i) fundamental policy of Indian law; or (ii) the interests of India; or (iii) justice or morality."

[19] See ONGC v. Saw Pipes 2003 (5) SCC 705, ¶¶ 31, (India); "In our view, the phrase "public policy of India"...is required to be given a wider meaning. It can be stated that the concept of public policy connotes some matter which concerns public good and the public interest. What is for public good or in public interest or what would be injurious or harmful to the public good or public interest has varied from time to time. However, the award which is, on the face of it, patently in violation of statutory provisions cannot be said to be in public interest. Such award/judgment/decision is likely to adversely affect the administration of justice. Hence, in our view in addition to narrower meaning given to the term "public policy" in Renusagar case it is required to be held that the award could be set aside if it is patently illegal. The result would be – award could be set aside if it is contrary to:

(a) fundamental policy of Indian law; or

(b) the interest of India; or

(d) in addition, if it is patently illegal.

Illegality must go to the root of the matter and if the illegality is of trivial nature it cannot be held that award is against the public policy. Award could also be set aside if it is so unfair and unreasonable that it shocks the conscience of the court. Such award is opposed to public policy and is required to be adjudged void."

[20] Section 28(2) specifically provides that arbitrator shall decide ex aequo et bono [according to what is just and good] only if the parties have expressly authorised him to do so. Similarly, if the award is patently against the statutory provisions of law which is in force in India or is passed without giving an opportunity of hearing to the parties as provided under Section 24 or without giving any reason in a case where parties have not agreed that no reasons are to be recorded, it would be against the statutory provisions. In all such cases, the award is required to be set aside on the ground of ’patent illegality’

[21] Clause 13 which provides for the dispute redressal clause can be broadly classified into the following three parts:

1. Disputes with regards to quantum of claim shall be referred to an arbitrator, to be appointed by the procedure prescribed therein.

2. No reference to arbitration if the insurer denies its liability.

3. Obtaining of arbitral award to be condition precedent to initiating any right of action or suit against the policy.

²³See Phulchand Exports Ltd. v. O.OO. Patriot, (2011) 10 SCC 300, ¶¶ 12

[23] See Shri Lal Mahal Ltd. v. Progetto Grano Spa, (2014) 2 SCC 433,¶¶29, that expression “public policy of India” under Section 48(2)(b) is narrow and limited to the extent of[11]: (i) Fundamental policy of Indian law. (ii) Interests of India. (iii) Justice and morality. However, the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2015 with regard to enforcement of foreign awards added Explanation to Section 48(2)(b) and thereby clarifying when an award shall be considered to be in conflict with “public policy of India”.

[24]See Venture Global Engineering v. Satyam Computer Services, (2008) 4 SCC 190.

[1] National Labour Relations Board v. Noel Canning (D.C. Cir. 2013) 705 F.3d 490, cert. granted, 133 S. Ct. 2861 (2013).

[2] David J. Arkush, ‘The Senate and the Recess Appointments’ 127 Harv. L. Rev. F. 1 <The Senate and the Recess Appointments - Harvard Law Review> accessed 18 October 2022

[3] Nirmala, ‘Why and how is the US senate more powerful than the Rajya Sabha and the British House of Lords?’ <Why and how is the US senate more powerful than the Rajya Sabha and the British House of Lords? (preservearticles.com)> accessed 18 October 2022

[4] David J. Arkush, ‘The Senate and the Recess Appointments’ 127 Harv. L. Rev. F. 1 <The Senate and the Recess Appointments - Harvard Law Review> accessed 18 October 2022

[5] Abhishek Mohanty, ‘Domicile Requirement in Rajya Sabha vis-à-vis Federalism’ (February 5, 2015) < Domicile Requirement in Rajya Sabha vis-à-vis Federalism - Academike (lawctopus.com)> accessed 18 October 2022

[6] J.W. Creswell, ‘Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among various approaches’ (2nd edn, Thousand Oaks, CA Sage (2007) )

[8] Will Kenton, 'Bicameral System: What It Is, How It Works, History in U.S.' (Investopedia, 21 September 2021) accessed 1November 2022

[9] Robert Longley, 'The Great Compromise of 1787' (ThoughtCo, 2 February 2022) accessed 1 November 2022

[10] S. S. Nanda, Bicameralism in India (New Era Publications, 1st edn, 1988) <https://openlibrary.org/books/ol2168778m/bicameralism_in_india> accessed 1 November 2022

[13] M. Laxmikant, Indian Polity (Mac Graw Hill, 6 edn, 2020)

[21] The Constitution of United States of America 1789, Art 1, s 3(1)

[23] The Constitution of United States of America 1789, Art 1, s 6

[29] The Constitution of United States of America 1789, Art 1, s 3

[31] The Constitution of United States of America 1789, Art 1, s 5

[33] US Senate, ‘Power and Procedure’ <U.S. Senate: Powers and Procedures> accessed 1 November 2022

[36] Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India [2006] SC 3127

[37] US Senate, ‘Composition’ < U.S. Senate> accessed 1 November 2022

[38] The Constitution of United States of America 1789 (17^th Amendment, 1913)

[43] US Senate, ‘Composition’ <U.S. Senate> accessed 1 November 2022

[1] Author is a 2^nd Year Student of B.A. LL. B (Hons.) at Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India.

[2] Author is a 3^rd Year Student of B.A. LL. B (Hons.) at Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India.

[3] K.N. Singh, Anti-Defection law and Judicial Review 38 JPI 31 (1992).

[4] J.K. Mittal, Anti-Defection Act: A comment on its Constitutionality (1987) 3 SCC(J) 25 at 26.

[5] Gulab Gupta, Anti-Defection law-An Introspection, 1966 (IX) CILQ 127 at 130.

[6] The J&K Representation of Peoples Act, 1957 (Act No. IV of 1957), Sec. 24- G.

[8] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 2 & 1 (a), (b).

[9] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 2 (2).

[13] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 3.

[15] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 6

[16] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 7

[25] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 2 (1) (b).

[28] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 2 (3)

[29] The Constitution of India, Schedule X, Para. 4

[34] Law Commission of India, 170th Report on Reform of Electoral Laws, available at, http://www.lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/lc170.htm - last visited on April 8, 2010

[1] Herbert Read Quotes. BrainyQuote.com, BrainyMedia Inc, 2022. https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/herbert_read_261755, accessed October 22, 2022.

[2] ICSID Convention, Article 21 and ICSID Convention, Article 22

[6] ICSID Convention, Article 49 and ICSID Convention, Article 52

[9] ICSID Convention, Article 62 and ICSID Convention, Article 63

[13] Thomas W Walsh, 'Substantive Review of ICSID Awards: Is the Desire for Accuracy Sufficient to Compromise Finality' (2006) 24 BJIL 444 accessed on 20 October 2022.

[15] Eiser and infrastructure services v. Spain ,[2020] FCA 157

[1] Dworkin, Ronald. “Feminism and Abortion”. The New York Review of Books, June 10, 1993, 27-29.

[2] Berer, Marge,(2017), “Abortion Law and Policy Around the World: In Search of Decriminalization.” Health and Human Rights, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 13–27.

[3] Ravi Singh Chhikara and Karman Kaur, (2020), The Conflicting Jurisprudence Behind the Laws on Abortion, International Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, Vol 3, No 2, pp-13-27.

[4] Berer, Marge, (2017), “Abortion Law and Policy Around the World: In Search of Decriminalization.” Health and Human Rights, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 13–27.

[5] Grimes DA, Stuart G. Abortion jabberwocky: “The Need for Better Terminology. Contraception”.

[6] Sedgh G, Singh S, Shah IH, Åhman E, Henshaw SK, Bankole A: “Induced abortion: Incidence and Trends Worldwide from 1995 To 2008”

[7] Bankole A, Singh S, Haas T: “Reasons why women have induced abortions: evidence from 27 countries.

[8] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Dec. 10, 1948, G.A. Res. 217 A (III), U.N. Doc.A/810 (1948), availableat: http://www.un.org/Overview/rights (last visited on Dec 16, 2020).

[10] William Saunders, “The ABC of International Right to Abortion”, available at: http://www.humanlifereview.com/index.php/archives/52-2010-summer/113-the-abcs-of-an-international-right- toabortion (last visited on Dec 16, 2020).

[11] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 6.

[13] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 1.

[14] Bhavish Gupta Meenu Gupta, (2016), Socio Cultural Aspect of Abortion in India: Law, Ethics and Practices, ILI law Review, pg-140-150.

[15] Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Article 12.

[16] Article 21- Protection of life and personal liberty No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

[17] Garima Tripathi, “Legacy and Legality of Abortion in India and in USA”, Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3636238, (last visited, 16 Dec, 202)

[18] Section 312-Causing miscarriage,

Section 313-Causing miscarriage without the consent of the woman, Section 314 -Death caused with an intent to cause miscarriage,

Section 315 -Act done with intent to prevent a child being born alive or to cause it to die after birth, Section 316(IPC): Causing death of a quick born child by act amounting to culpable homicide.

[20] Amar Jesani and Aditi Iyer, (1993) “Women and Abortion”, Economic and Political Weekly, 27.

[24] Government of India, Report of the Committee to Study the Question of Legalisation of Abortion 36 (Ministry of Health and Family, 1966).

[25] Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1972 (Act of 1971), Preamble.

[26] Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1972 (Act of 1971), s. 3.

[27] Writ Petition (C) No. 593 of 2016 (Supreme Court of India), decided on July 25, 2016, available at: http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/FileServer/2016-07-25_1469453114.pdf (last visited on Dec 16, 2020)

[28] International Federation of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, Recommendations on Ethical Issues in Obstetrics and Gynaecology 58 (Committee for the Study of Ethical Aspects of Human Reproduction and Women’s Health, Oct. 2009), available at: http://www.figo.org/docs/ Ethics%20Guidelines%20%20English%20version%202006%20-2009.pdf (last visited on Dec 16, 2020).

[31] 6 Micheal DA Freeman, Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence (7th edn, Sweet & Maxwell 2001) 132-139.

[32] John Finnis, ‘The fragile case for euthanasia: a reply to John Harris’ in John Keown (eds), Euthanasia Examined (Cambridge University Press 1995).

[33] Emily Jackson, Medical law: texts, cases and materials (OUP 2006) 594; Jonathan Herring, Medical Law and Ethics (OUP 2006) 262.

[34] Ronald Dworkin, Life’s Dominion (HarperCollins 1993).

[35] Steven Ross and Terry F Godlove, ‘Books Review’ (1994) 25(1) Methaphilosophy 96, p 96.

[36] [no author], ‘Inside out, Within and Beyond, or Backwards? Life’s Dominion: An Argument about Abortion, Euthanasia, and Individual Freedom’ (1994) 107(4) Harvard Law Review 943, 943

[37] Siddhivinayak Hirve,(2004) “Abortion Policy In India: Lacunae and Future Challenge” Abortion Assessment Project, India Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes, Bombay

[39] Bhavish Gupta Meenu Gupta, (2016), Socio Cultural Aspect of Abortion in India: Law, Ethics and Practices, ILI law Review, pg-146.

[40] Patchesky Rosalind Pollack, Abortion and Women's Choice: The State, Sexuality and Reproductive Freedom 13 (Northeastern University Press, 1st edn., 1991).

[2] Brady and Joseph Donald, The Doctrine of Ultra Vires, Its Nature, Elements & Mordern Application, American Law Review, Vol.54 Issue.4 (1920).

[3] Attorney General v. G.E. Rly. Co., (1880) 5 A.C. 473.

[4] A. Ramaiya, Guide to The Companies Act (19^th ed. Vol.1, 2020), section. 4(1)(c).

[5] Central Transport Co. v. Pullman’s Palace Car Co., 139 U.S. 24, II Sup. Ct. 489

[6] Kefauver and Estetes, The Doctrine of Ultra Vires, Tennessee Law Review, Vol.6 Issue.1 (1927-1928).

[8] A. Ramaiya, Guide to The Companies Act (19^th ed. Vol.1, 2020), section. 4(1)(c).

[9] Ashbury Railway Carriage & Iron Co. Ltd. v. Riche, (1875) L.R. 7 H.L. 653

[13] P.S. Sangal, Ultra Vires & Companies: The Indian Experience, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol.12 Issue.3 (1963).

[15] Thompson and Seymour, The Doctrine of Ultra Vires in relation to Private Corporations, American Law Review, Vol.28 Issue.3 (1894)

[16] Thompson and Seymour, The Doctrine of Ultra Vires in relation to Private Corporations, American Law Review, Vol.28 Issue.3 (1894)

[17] G.M. Sen, Rule of Ultra Vires in company law, has it outlived its purpose, Journal of the Indian Law Institute, Vol.27 Issue.2 (1985)

[18] G.M. Sen, Rule of Ultra Vires in company law, has it outlived its purpose, Journal of the Indian Law Institute, Vol.27 Issue.2 (1985)

[22] Dr. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar A. v. LIC (1963) Comp LJ 248

[23] Gower, The Principles of Modern Company Law 97 (3^rd ed., 1969)

[24] Report of the Cohen Committee on Company Law Amendment, 1945, ¶.12

[25] Report of the High-Powered Expert Committee on Companies and M.R.T.P. Acts, 180(1978).

[26] Report of The Company Law Committee, 1952, ¶.33

[27] G.M. Sen, Rule of Ultra Vires in company law, has it outlived its purpose, Journal of the Indian Law Institute, Vol.27 Issue.2 (1985)

[29] A. Ramaiya, Guide to The Companies Act (19^th ed. Vol.1, 2020), section. 4(1)(c).

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[39] The Devadasis were said to have developed various forms of dances and arts such as Bharatnatyam. Such form of classical dance has now become the identity of India on a global pedestal. ⁴⁰Supra note 2.

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[8] Entry 18, List II, Schedule VII, Constitution of India

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[14] S.R. Batra v. Taruna Batra, (2006) 3 SCC 530.

[15] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (No. 43 of 2005).

[16] Menon, N. (2007). Gender and Politics in India. Oxford University Press.

[17] Bhanwari Devi case (1992): Bhanwari Devi, a lower-caste woman, was gang-raped for attempting to prevent a child marriage in Rajasthan, India. Her case led to widespread protests and legal reforms in India.

[18] Kabeer, N. (2005). Gender equality and women's empowerment: A critical analysis of the third Millennium Development Goal 1. Gender & Development, 13(1), 13-24.

[19] State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, AIR 1952 SC 75.

[20] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (No. 43 of 2005).

[21] Chakravarti, U. (2013). Families in India: Beliefs and Realities. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 44(3), 339-359

[22] The "Delhi Gang Rape" Case (2012): The gang rape and murder of a young woman in Delhi in December 2012 led to widespread protests and discussions about gender-based violence and legal reforms in India.

[23] Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458-476). SAGE Publications Ltd.

[24] State of Punjab v. Iqbal Singh, AIR 1991 SC 1538.

[25] Rupan Deol Bajaj v. Kanwar Pal Singh Gill, (1996) 2 SCC 648

[26] Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139-167.

[27] Rappaport, J. (1987). Terms of Empowerment/Exemplars of Prevention: Toward a Theory for Community Psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 15(2), 121-148.

[28] International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and ICF. (2017). National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), India, 2015-16: State Fact Sheet.

[29] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (No. 43 of 2005).

[30] Duflo, E. (2012). Women's Empowerment and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051-1079.

[31] Vimochana. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://vimochana.net/

[33] State of Punjab v. Gurmit Singh, (1996) 2 SCC 384

[34] Stop Victim Blaming (n.d.). Retrieved from https://stopvictimblaming.in/.

[35] State of U.P. v. Naushad, Criminal Appeal No. 314 of 2013.

[36] Supreme Court of India (2018). Guidelines regarding the Identity of Victims of Rape (In re: Destruction of Evidence v. State of Bihar). Writ Petition (Criminal) No. 167 of 2012.

[37] The Media Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.themediarumble.com/media-foundation.

[38] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (No. 43 of 2005).

[39] The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 (No. 13 of 2013).

[40] Vimochana. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://vimochana.net/

[41] The "Nirbhaya Fund" (2013): Established in the aftermath of the 2012 Delhi gang rape case to support initiatives addressing violence against women

[42] Vishaka and Others v. State of Rajasthan and Others (1997) 6 SCC 241.

[43] State of Punjab v. Gurmit Singh, (1996) 2 SCC 384.

[44] Majlis Legal Centre. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://majlislaw.com/.

[45] Lawyers Collective. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.lawyerscollective.org/.

[46] Lata Singh v. State of U.P., (2006) 5 SCC 475.

[47] Shayara Bano v. Union of India, (2017) 9 SCC 1.

[48] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (No. 43 of 2005).

[49] The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 (No. 33 of 1989).

[50] Bhanwari Devi v. State of Rajasthan (1992) 6 SCC 503.

[51] Information Technology Act, 2000 (No. 21 of 2000)

[53] Cyber Peace Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.cyberpeace.org/.

[54] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (No. 43 of 2005).

[55] State of Maharashtra v. Madhukar Narayan, Criminal Appeal No. 493 of 2015.

[56] Sakhi. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://sakhi.org/.

[57] Majlis Legal Centre. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://majlislaw.com/.

[58] Lawyers Collective. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.lawyerscollective.org/.

IJLRA	N. Raj Kumar ; Kamble Shivadayal . "Design of Fault Tolerance Parallel FFT’s Using Xilinx 14.5v" Iconic Research And Engineering Journals Volume 5 Issue 8 2022 Page 1-6
IEEE	N. Raj Kumar ; Kamble Shivadayal . "Design of Fault Tolerance Parallel FFT’s Using Xilinx 14.5v" Iconic Research And Engineering Journals, 5(8)

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