Open Access Research Article
WHITE COLLAR CRIME AND DEVIANCE
Published Paper
Article Details
WHITE COLLAR CRIME AND DEVIANCE
AUTHORED BY - MUKESH KUMAR YADAV
Abstract
"White Collar Crime and Deviance" examines
the complex relationship that exists between deviant conduct and white-collar
crime within privileged social classes. In order to provide insight on the
intricate dynamics and societal ramifications of privilege class deviance and
white-collar crime, this paper explores their historical roots, theoretical
stances, and empirical manifestations. The study investigates the intersections
of privilege, power, and criminal behaviour in business, political, and social
contexts using case studies and multidisciplinary research. It investigates how
affluent people use their advantages in society, the economy, and institutions
to commit immoral and illegal acts that erode social cohesion and sustain
systemic injustices. In order to address white-collar crime and privilege class
deviance, the study also examines the function of regulatory frameworks,
enforcement mechanisms, and accountability measures, outlining the prospects
and problems for reform. This study adds to a deeper knowledge of the
complexity inherent in contemporary criminology by critically investigating the
relationship between privilege class deviance and white-collar crime. It also
advocates for proactive ways to improve transparency, accountability, and
equity in society.
WHITE COLLAR CRIME AND DEVIANCE
In the realm of criminology and
sociology, the study of crime has historically been associated with
marginalized and economically disadvantaged populations. However, the landscape
of criminal behaviour extends far beyond street crime and encompasses a wide array
of illicit activities perpetrated by individuals and entities occupying
positions of privilege and power. This phenomenon, commonly referred to as
"white-collar crime," represents a significant yet often overlooked
aspect of criminality within contemporary societies. Moreover, within the
context of white-collar crime, the concept of privilege class deviance emerges
as a critical area of inquiry, shedding light on the intersection of
socio-economic advantage and deviant behaviour.
A variety of
crimes perpetrated by persons or groups in positions of trust or authority,
typically in professional or commercial contexts, and motivated by financial
gain are collectively known similar to white-collar crimes. Sociologist Edwin
Sutherland coined the term "white-collar crime" in the late 1930s to
refer to crimes committed by people in positions of power and by people with
high social status while they were working.[1] Over
time, the concept has evolved to include a diverse array of offenses such as
fraud, embezzlement, insider trading, bribery, and corporate misconduct. These
crimes are characterized by their complexity, sophistication, and often elusive
nature, posing significant challenges to law enforcement and regulatory
authorities.
Simultaneously, the notion of
privilege class deviance highlights the reality that criminal behaviour is not
confined to the margins of society but can also be found among those occupying
positions of privilege and social status. Privilege class deviance refers to
the violation of societal norms and expectations by individuals or groups who
benefit from systemic advantages and access to resources. Unlike conventional
depictions of criminality, which often focus on the actions of marginalized
individuals, privilege class deviance underscores the role of power, wealth,
and social capital in shaping deviant behaviour.
The intersection of white-collar
crime and privilege class deviance presents a complex and multifaceted
phenomenon with far-reaching implications for individuals, organizations, and
society at large. On one hand, white-collar crime poses significant economic
and social costs, undermining trust in institutions, eroding public confidence,
and perpetuating inequality.[2] On
the other hand, privilege class deviance challenges conventional notions of
criminality, prompting critical reflections on the dynamics of power,
privilege, and justice within contemporary societies.
The main causes
of the rise in white-collar crime in India include rivalry, greed, and a lack
of suitable regulations to discourage such crimes. For a large segment of the
population, poverty is a major cause of both financial and physical
deprivation. As a result, poverty can also contribute to white collar crime
since it might drive people to commit these crimes in order to satisfy their
desires. Criminals are now more inclined to commit crimes and hide everywhere
thanks to the development of the internet and the digital world, where large
transactions can be completed in a matter of seconds and communication with
people worldwide can be established in a matter of minutes. Furthermore,
because of legislative loopholes, the legal system is unable to hold
white-collar crime perpetrators accountable after they are captured.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
The research issue seeks to
investigate the relationship between socio-economic privilege and white-collar
crime, addressing the question of whether individuals from higher social
classes are more likely to engage in criminal activities compared to those from
lower socio-economic backgrounds. By exploring the intersection of privilege
class deviance and white-collar crime, the research aims to identify the
underlying mechanisms driving criminal behaviour within privileged social
circles and to assess the implications for social inequality and justice.
WHITE-COLLAR CRIME
White-collar
crime, a term coined by sociologist Edwin Sutherland in his seminal work
"White Collar Crime" published in 1949, refers to financial crimes
that are non-violent and carried out by people or organizations in positions of
power. Sutherland's groundbreaking research challenged traditional notions of
crime, shifting the focus from street-level offenses to the illicit activities
of those in respectable occupations.
The origins of
white-collar crime can be traced back to the rapid industrialization and
urbanization of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As society underwent
profound economic transformations, new opportunities for exploitation and fraud
emerged within the burgeoning corporate and financial sectors. The rise of
large-scale enterprises, accompanied by lax regulation and oversight, created
fertile ground for unethical conduct and fraudulent practices[3].
One of the
earliest documented cases of white-collar crime dates back to the 18th century,
with the South Sea Bubble scandal in Britain. This notorious financial scheme,
perpetrated by the South Sea Company, involved speculation and market
manipulation, leading to widespread financial ruin for investors. In a similar
vein, the Ponzi scheme, which got its name from Charles Ponzi, the man behind
an investment scam in the early 20th century, represents the historical
persistence of the appeal of white-collar crime.
The 20th century
witnessed a proliferation of white-collar offenses, spurred by advancements in
technology, globalization, and the increasingly complex nature of modern
business practices. High-profile scandals such as the Enron scandal in 2001 and
the global financial crisis of 2008 exposed the pervasive nature of
white-collar crime and its devastating impact on economies and societies
worldwide.
Throughout
history, efforts to combat white-collar crime have evolved in tandem with the
changing nature of criminal activity. Legislative measures such as the Sherman
Antitrust Act of 1890 in the United States, aimed at curbing monopolistic
practices, and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, enacted in response to corporate
accounting scandals, represent significant milestones in the ongoing struggle
against white-collar crime[4].
The white-collar
crime has deep roots in the economic and social transformations of modern
society. From its origins in the industrial era to its contemporary
manifestations in the digital age, white-collar crime continues to pose
formidable challenges to regulatory authorities, law enforcement agencies, and
policymakers. By understanding its historical evolution and underlying
dynamics, society can better equip itself to prevent, detect, and prosecute
white-collar offenders, thereby safeguarding the integrity of financial markets
and protecting the public interest.
WHITE COLLAR CRIME CASES
2G Spectrum Scam (2008)
The 2G spectrum allocation was a
process by which the Indian government granted licenses to telecom companies to
operate in specific frequency bands. The scam involved irregularities in the
allocation of 2G spectrum licenses and subsequent resale of licenses at
manipulated prices, causing significant losses to the exchequer. It was alleged that then-Telecom
Minister A. Raja and other officials colluded with telecom companies to rig the
allocation process, favoring certain companies over others. The scam exposed instances of
underpricing and arbitrary allocation of spectrum, resulting in estimated
losses of up to Rs. 1.76 trillion according to the Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG) report. The scam came to
light following a series of investigative reports by the Comptroller and
Auditor General (CAG) and the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI). A Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC)
was constituted to investigate the matter, leading to the arrest and
prosecution of several high-profile individuals, including A. Raja and
corporate executives. The legal
proceedings spanned several years, with multiple cases filed in various courts,
including the Supreme Court of India and special CBI courts.[5]
Though In 2017, Special Court (CBI) acquitted several accused of 2G Scam
including the then Telecom Minister A. Raja, Kanimozzhi and others on the
grounds that Prosecution failed to prove charges against all the accused
persons. After 7 years, in March 2024 Delhi High Court admits the appeal
against acquittal of 2G scam accused.[6]
Satyam Scandal
(2009):
Involved one of
the largest corporate accounting frauds in India. Satyam Computer Services'
founder and chairman, Ramalinga Raju, admitted to creating assets worth over $1
billion and exaggerating the company's profitability. Investor trust was
damaged as a result of the controversy, legal proceedings against Raju and
other top executives, and the eventual takeover of Satyam by Tech Mahindra.[7]
Harshad Mehta
Scam (1992):
Harshad Mehta, a
stockbroker, manipulated the stock market by exploiting loopholes in the
banking system. He engaged in the practice of "circular trading" and
used forged bank receipts to secure massive loans from banks. The scam exposed
systemic flaws in India's banking and financial regulatory framework, leading
to reforms in the securities market and banking sector.[8]
Vijay Mallya -
Kingfisher Airlines Debacle (2012):
Former
Kingfisher Airlines chairman Vijay Mallya was accused of financial
irregularities and loan defaults totalling thousands of billions. Mallya was
accused of diverting funds from the airline for personal use and failing to
repay loans taken from various banks. The case garnered widespread attention due
to Mallya's extravagant lifestyle and subsequent legal battles with Indian
authorities over his extradition from the United Kingdom.[9]
Nirav Modi -
Punjab National Bank Fraud (2018):
The millionaire
jeweler Nirav Modi and his businesses were charged with stealing more than $2
billion from Punjab National Bank (PNB). In order to secure credit from Indian
bank branches abroad, false letters of undertaking (LoUs) were issued as part
of the scheme. The case exposed weaknesses in the banking system's risk management
practices and led to increased scrutiny of corporate governance standards.
Saradha Group
Chit Fund Scam (2013):
The Saradha
Group, a conglomerate operating chit fund schemes, collapsed, leaving thousands
of investors defrauded of their savings. Sudipta Sen and other group promoters
were charged with operating a Ponzi scheme, in which money from new investors
was used to pay returns to previous ones. The scam had significant political
ramifications, implicating several influential figures and leading to public
outcry and protests in affected regions.
PROFESSIONAL DEVIANCE IN VARIOUS PROFESSION
Professional deviance refers to
behaviour that violates professional norms, standards, or ethical codes within
a specific occupation or profession. It encompasses actions or conduct that
deviate from the accepted norms of behaviour expected within a particular
professional context.[10] It refers to behavior that departs from the social norm
within a professional context. In the legal profession,
it can manifest as white-collar crime, a term coined by American sociologist
E.H. Sutherland. White-collar
crime is non-violent, committed by individuals of high social status in their
profession, with the motive of illegal monetary gain.
Though professionals involved in wrong practice in almost every profession like
Legal, Medical, Journalism, Education, Bureaucracy, etc.
THEORIES OF PROFESSIONAL DEVIANCE
Strain Theory: Robert K.
Merton's strain theory states that people may act in ways that are considered
abnormal when they feel pressured to fulfil socially acceptable objectives,
like achievement or prestige, despite having little possibilities to do so. In
the context of professional deviance, individuals within certain professions
may experience strain due to factors such as performance targets, financial
incentives, workplace stressors, or organizational constraints, leading them to
engage in unethical behaviour to alleviate this strain[11].
Differential
Association Theory: The differential association theory, formulated by Edwin
Sutherland, posits that individuals learn deviant behaviour through
interactions with others who endorse or engage in such behaviour. In the
context of professional deviance, professionals may be influenced by the norms and
values prevalent within their professional networks or peer groups. If they
associate with colleagues or superiors who condone or normalize unethical
practices, they may be more likely to engage in similar behaviour themselves.
Social Learning
Theory: Building upon the principles of the differential association theory, the
social learning theory suggests that individuals acquire and imitate behavior
by observing the actions of others and the consequences of those actions. In
the context of professional deviance, professionals may observe and learn from
the deviant behavior of their peers or superiors, leading them to replicate
such behaviour in similar circumstances. Weak regulatory oversight or lax
enforcement of ethical standards within professional settings may further
facilitate the learning and normalization of professional deviance.
Labelling
Theory: The labelling theory proposes that individuals may engage in deviant
behaviour as a response to the negative labels or stigmatization imposed upon
them by society or their peers. In the context of professional deviance,
professionals who perceive themselves as unfairly judged or stigmatized by
their colleagues or superiors may be more inclined to engage in deviant
behaviour as a means of coping with or resisting these negative labels.
LEGAL PROFESSION
In the legal profession, professional
deviance may involve unethical conduct, such as bribery, fraud, conflicts of
interest, or violations of client confidentiality. The differential association
theory proposes that lawyers may engage in deviant behavior if they associate
with peers who endorse or normalize unethical practices[12].
Moreover, the rational choice theory suggests that lawyers may engage in
professional deviance if they perceive the benefits of such behavior to
outweigh the risks of detection or punishment. It refers to actions or
behaviors by legal practitioners that violate ethical standards, legal norms,
or professional codes of conduct. Such deviance can undermine the integrity of
the legal system and erode public trust in the profession. The most recent
example of professional misconduct in India occurred during a nationwide strike
that attorneys staged to oppose the Law Commission's proposals to change the
Advocates Act, 1961, which was supported by the Bar Council of India, the
strikers were protesting what they saw as an attempt to limit the independence
of the organisation.[13]
MEDICAL PROFESSIONAL
Professional deviance in the medical
profession refers to actions or behaviors that contravene ethical standards,
codes of conduct, or accepted norms within the healthcare sector. In India,
where the healthcare system grapples with numerous challenges, instances of
professional deviance can have significant repercussions for patient care,
public trust, and the integrity of the medical profession.
Unnecessary
Medical Procedures: One form of professional deviance in the Indian medical
profession involves the performance of unnecessary medical procedures or
interventions.[14]
Prescription
Abuse and Overmedication: Another manifestation of professional deviance is the
abuse of prescription practices and overmedication. Some healthcare
practitioners may engage in the indiscriminate prescribing of medications,
including antibiotics and psychotropic drugs, without adequate clinical
justification.[15]
Patient
Exploitation and Fraudulent Practices: Instances of patient exploitation and
fraudulent practices are also prevalent in the Indian medical profession. This
may involve healthcare providers overcharging patients for services,
recommending unnecessary tests or treatments, or engaging in fraudulent billing
practices. Such behavior not only compromises patient trust but also undermines
the reputation and credibility of the medical profession as a whole.
Negligence and
Medical Errors: Negligence and medical errors represent another form of
professional deviance that can have grave consequences for patient safety and
well-being. Instances of medical negligence, including surgical errors,
misdiagnosis, and medication errors, may occur due to factors such as
inadequate training, lack of supervision, or systemic deficiencies within
healthcare facilities.
Conflict of
Interest and Ethical Dilemmas: Finally, conflict of interest and ethical
dilemmas pose significant challenges to professional integrity within the
Indian medical profession. Healthcare professionals may have conflicts of
interest that make it difficult for them to put patients' needs first due to
monetary rewards, connections within the industry, or interpersonal
relationships.
MEDIA PROFESSIONAL
Professional
deviance within the media profession refers to actions or behaviors that
contravene ethical standards, norms, or professional guidelines within the
field of journalism, broadcasting, or digital media. This phenomenon
encompasses a range of unethical conduct, including but not limited to
fabrication of news stories, plagiarism, biased reporting, conflict of
interest, and invasion of privacy.
Fabrication and
Sensationalism: One form of professional deviance in the Indian media involves
the fabrication or sensationalization of news stories for the purpose of
garnering attention or increasing viewership.
Bias and
Partisan Reporting: Professional deviance in the form of bias or partisan
reporting occurs when media professionals exhibit favouritism towards certain
individuals, organizations, or political ideologies in their news coverage.[16]
Regulatory
Challenges and Accountability Mechanisms: Addressing professional deviance in
the Indian media profession requires robust regulatory frameworks and
accountability mechanisms to uphold ethical standards and maintain media
integrity. The Press Council of India (PCI) and the News Broadcasting Standards
Authority (NBSA) play crucial roles in setting ethical guidelines and
adjudicating complaints of professional misconduct within the media industry.[17]
LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
White collar
crimes not only put victims through financial hardship, but they may also have
a big impact on the country's economy. The stability and governance of the
country are seriously jeopardized by economic crimes like money laundering,
financial scams, bribery, and counterfeiting of currency, among others. The
following table enumerates different economic offenses, relevant legal
statutes, and law enforcement agencies in India:
|
Sl.
|
Name of Legislation/Act
|
Enforcement Authority
|
Name of the offence
|
|
1.
|
Import & Export
(Control) Act, 1947
|
Directorate General of
Foreign Trade/ CBI[18]
|
Illegal Foreign Trade
|
|
2.
|
Prevention of
Corruption Act, 1988
|
State/Anti-Corruption
Bureau /Vigilance Bureau/ CBI
|
Corruption and Bribery
of Public Servants
|
|
3.
|
Foreign Exchange
Regulations Act, 1973
|
Directorate of
Enforcement
|
Money Laundering
|
|
4.
|
Customs Act 1962 /
COFEPOSA[19],
1974
|
Collectors of Customs
|
Illegal Trafficking in
Contraband Goods (Smuggling)
|
|
5.
|
Indian Penal Code, 1860
|
State Police/ CBI
|
Land Hijacking/Real
Estate Fraud, Banking Fraud, Insurance Fraud
|
|
6.
|
Banking Regulation Act,
1949
|
CBI
|
Fraudulent Bankruptcy
|
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The
institutional framework for addressing white-collar crime in India consists of
a network of government agencies, regulatory bodies, and specialized courts.
These institutions are responsible for investigating, prosecuting, and
regulating white-collar offenses, as well as ensuring compliance with financial
and economic laws.[20] The key
components of the institutional framework for tackling white-collar crime in
India include the following:
The Central
Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is the top investigative body in India, handling
cases involving financial fraud, economic offenses, and corruption, among other
things. White-collar crime is the focus of the CBI's economic offenses wings
and special crime branches. It is run by the Ministry of Personnel, Public
Grievances, and Pensions' Department of Personnel and Training.
Enforcement
Directorate (ED): The ED is responsible for enforcing the Prevention of Money
Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002. It investigates money laundering offenses, which
often accompany white-collar crimes. The ED plays a crucial role in identifying
and confiscating assets acquired through illegal means.
Reserve Bank of
India (RBI): The RBI is India's central banking institution responsible for
regulating the country's financial sector. It plays a significant role in
preventing financial crimes by enforcing compliance with banking and financial
regulations.
The Securities
and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) is the body in charge of overseeing the
capital markets and securities industry in India. It controls different
financial products, middlemen, and stock exchanges. SEBI is instrumental in
ensuring transparency and investor protection in the financial sector.
Corporate
Affairs Ministry: The Ministry of Corporate Affairs plays a key role in
regulating corporate entities and companies operating in India. It enforces
company law, investigates corporate misconduct, and ensures compliance with
corporate governance standards.[21]
Serious Fraud
Investigation Office (SFIO): The Ministry of Corporate Affairs oversees this
specialist fraud investigation organization. It looks into corporate
malfeasance and intricate financial crimes with an emphasis on safeguarding
investor interests.
The central organization in India in charge of gathering, processing, evaluating, and sharing data about questionable financial activities is the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND). It is essential to the fight against money laundering.
The central organization in India in charge of gathering, processing, evaluating, and sharing data about questionable financial activities is the Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND). It is essential to the fight against money laundering.
Specialized
Courts: India has established specialized courts to handle white-collar crime
cases, often referred to as Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) courts or
economic offenses courts. These courts are designated to expedite the trial
process and provide judges with expertise in financial and economic matters.
State Police
Economic Offenses Wings: Many states in India have established specialized
economic offenses wings within their police departments to investigate
financial and economic crimes at the state level[22].
Forensic Labs
and Cybercrime Cells: As white-collar crimes increasingly involve digital
elements, various states in India have established forensic laboratories and
cybercrime cells with expertise in digital forensics.
International
Cooperation: India actively cooperates with international agencies, such as
INTERPOL and the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), to combat transnational
white-collar crime and enhance information sharing. Legislative Framework: The
legal framework for white-collar crime is primarily governed by the Indian
Penal Code (IPC), which includes provisions related to fraud, cheating, and
other financial offenses. In addition, some legislation, such as the Prevention
of Corruption Act of 1988 and the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) of
2002, are crucial in reducing white-collar crime.
This
institutional framework reflects India's commitment to addressing white-collar
crime comprehensively and efficiently. However, challenges related to legal
delays, bureaucratic hurdles, and the need for specialized judges and forensic
experts persist, necessitating ongoing efforts to enhance the effectiveness of
the framework.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
white-collar
crime is a complex issue with broad economic and social repercussions. Even
while the nation has made progress in creating a legal and judicial system to
deal with these kinds of crimes, issues including bureaucratic roadblocks,
lengthy legal proceedings, and intricate investigations still exist. India's response to white-collar crime is
still developing; new laws are being introduced, specialized cells are being
established, international collaboration is being cultivated, and asset
recovery is becoming a more important focus. In the face of evolving financial
and cybercrimes, India must continue to confront these issues, improve the
effectiveness of its legal and judicial systems, and acquire the know-how
required to prosecute white-collar criminals. Securing justice and preserving
faith in the country's banking and judicial systems relies on a more efficient
and effective response to white-collar crime.
The complex
phenomena of privilege class deviance and white-collar crime converge at the
intersection of social rank, wealth, and power. Throughout history, people from
privileged backgrounds have abused their advantages in terms of money, social
standing, and institutions to commit a variety of immoral and illegal acts,
frequently with disastrous results for the people involved, the organizations
they work for, and society at large.
White-collar
criminals have caused significant financial losses, eroded public trust, and
increased social inequality by abusing regulatory gaps, manipulating markets,
and prioritizing personal gain over ethical considerations. Their crimes range
from corporate fraud to financial misbehaviour.
Similar to
privilege class deviance, which highlights the fact that deviant behaviour is
not limited to underprivileged or marginalized groups, privilege class deviance
goes beyond traditional conceptions of criminality. Those from affluent
socioeconomic classes may also transgress social norms and expectations, using
their financial standing as a shield against punishment or as a means of
avoiding detection. Privilege class misbehaviour, such as insider trading on Wall
Street or nepotism in prestigious educational institutions, sustains structural
inequality and a climate of impunity among the powerful and wealthy. The
intricate relationship between privilege class deviance and white-collar crime
necessitates a multidimensional strategy that includes socioeconomic, legal,
and regulatory actions. To dissuade and hold white-collar offenders accountable
for their activities, it is imperative to fortify enforcement tools, improve
transparency, and foster ethical corporate governance. To address privilege
class deviance and advance social justice, it is also essential to challenge
ingrained systems of privilege, promote social responsibility, and cultivate an
ethical leadership culture.
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Common White Collar Crime,
https://www.nu.edu/blog/common-white-collar-crimes/
[2]
White Collar Crime: Impact, Prevention and Example;
https://www.tookitaki.com/glossary/white-collar-crime
[3]White-Collar crime: History and its
evolution. (2024, February 26). Accessed from
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/finance/white-collar-crime/
[4] Kam C Wong, From White-Collar
Crime to Organizational Crime: An Intellectual History, Murdoch University
Electronic Journal of Law, (March 5, 2024, 1:36 PM),
[5]
https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/what-is-2g-scam-in-india-2g-scam-verdict-upa-a-raja-cbi-judge-op-saini-verdict-things-to-know-1113444-2017-12-21;
Accessed on March 23, 2024)
[7] Case Study of Satyam Scandal;
https://blog.ipleaders.in/case-study-satyam-fraud-case/
[8] The Harshad Mehta Scam,
https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/harshad-mehta-securities-scam-india-legacy-of-bank-fraud-1733374-2020-10-20
[9] Vijay Mallaya Scam: Biggest
Corporate Scam in Indian Histroy
https://www.finowings.com/Corporate-Scams/vijay-mallya-scam
[10] Vaughn, M. S. (1983). Uncoupling coercive sanctions
from the class of deviants: A research note. Criminology, 21(2), 273-281.
[11] Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders:
Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press.
[12] Ohlin, L. E., and R. A. Cloward (1960). Opportunity and Delinquency: A
Theory of Delinquent Gangs. Press Free.
[13] Lawyer’s deviance - taking law in
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[14] Bhattacharya, S., & Banerjee,
P. (2017). Unwanted Cesarean Sections in India: Need for Prudent Practice
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[15] Patel, I., Chotai, N., Thakor, P., Sharma, D., &
Patel, N. (2015). Antibiotic Prescribing Pattern among Healthcare Workers in
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[16] Dhavan, R. (2017). Media Bias in
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[17] Press Council of India. (2020).
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[18] Central Bureau of Investigation
[19] Conservation of Foreign Exchange
and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974.
[20] Centre Sardar Patel University of
Police, Security and criminal justice, jodhpur. Accessed from
https://policeuniversity.ac.in/centers.php?id=4
[21] Fraud
Triangle, Corporate Finance Institute,
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corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/accounting/fraud-triangle/.
[22] A study on White Collor crimes; https://lexforti.com/legal-news/white-collar-crimes/ (last accessed September 10, 2023)
Article Information
WHITE COLLAR CRIME AND DEVIANCE
Authors: MUKESH KUMAR YADAV
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/04/11
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Access Open Access
- License CC 4.0
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