Open Access Research Article
VICTIM BLAMING IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM: IMPLICATIONS FOR JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
Published Paper
Article Details
AUTHORED BY – SIMRAN CHAUHAN
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Victim blaming is a complex issue
that is rooted in societal attitudes and beliefs. It can be perpetuated through
media coverage, cultural norms, and even within legal systems. Victim blaming
can also take many different forms, such as blaming the victim's clothing,
behaviour, or past history, or suggesting that they “asked for it” in some way.
These attitudes can be especially harmful in cases of sexual assault, where
victims may already be dealing with trauma and shame.
Over the years, there has been increasing
awareness of the harmful impact of victim blaming, and efforts have been made
to combat it. Many advocates, researchers, and organizations have worked to
change cultural attitudes and improve legal systems to better support survivors
and hold perpetrators accountable. However, victim blaming still persists in
many contexts, and continued efforts are needed to address this harmful
phenomenon.[1]
1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
·
"The
Social Psychology of Blaming the Victim" by Melvin Lerner (1980) - This
classic article explores the psychological processes underlying victim blaming,
arguing that it is often a result of a desire to maintain a belief in a just
world.
·
"Attribution
of Responsibility for Rape: The Influence of Observer's Attitudes and Victim's
Perceived Provocativeness" by Martha R. Burt (1980) - This study examines
the factors that influence attributions of responsibility for rape, finding
that victim blaming is more likely when the victim is perceived as having
behaved provocatively.
·
"Rape
Victim Blaming as System Justification: The Role of Gender and Activation of
Complementary Stereotypes" by Jocelyn J. Belanger and Aaron C. Kay (2019)
- This article explores the role of gender and complementary stereotypes in
victim blaming, arguing that victim blaming serves to justify and maintain
existing power structures.
·
"The
Impact of Rape Myth Acceptance, Victim Resistance, and Victim Blame on Rape
Case Processing" by Katie E. Gentile and Andrew R. Flores (2017) - This
study examines the impact of rape myth acceptance and victim blame on the
processing of rape cases, finding that these factors can lead to lower rates of
prosecution and conviction.
·
"The
Relationship Between Beliefs in a Just World and Victim Blaming in Rape
Situations: A Meta-Analysis" by Julia C. Lammers, Sören Kliem, and Jürgen
Margraf (2018) - This meta-analysis examines the relationship between beliefs
in a just world and victim blaming, finding that the two are strongly
correlated.
1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
The statement of research problem on
victim blaming refers to the issue of individuals holding victims responsible
for the harm they have experienced. This problem is prevalent in many areas,
including sexual assault, domestic violence, and harassment. Victim blaming is
a complex issue that involves societal attitudes, cultural norms, and personal
biases. It often leads to victim silence and discourages reporting of crimes.
The statement of research problem on victim blaming aims to explore the reasons
behind the tendency to blame victims, understand how it affects the victim's
mental health and well-being and to study the legislative framework to prevent
victim blaming. This research problem is important as it helps to shed light on
this pervasive issue and may inform policy and practice aimed at reducing
victim blaming and promoting accountability.
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.
To examine the prevalence and forms of victim
blaming in different types of victimization, such as sexual assault, domestic
violence, and harassment.
2.
To identify the factors that contribute to victim
blaming, including cultural norms, individual biases, and societal attitudes.
3.
To investigate the impact of victim blaming on the
mental health and well-being of victims, including their self-esteem,
self-blame, and help-seeking behaviours.
4.
To explore the role of education and
awareness-raising campaigns in reducing victim blaming attitudes and promoting
accountability for perpetrators.
5.
To propose strategies for preventing victim
blaming, such as improving laws and policies, providing support services for
victims, and promoting positive societal attitudes towards victimization.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.
What are the different forms and prevalence of
victim blaming in cases of sexual assault, domestic violence, and harassment?
2.
What are the underlying factors that contribute to
victim blaming, such as cultural norms, individual biases, and societal
attitudes?
3.
How does victim blaming affect the mental health
and well-being of victims, including their self-esteem, self-blame, and
help-seeking behaviours?
4.
Is there any law that prevents victim blaming?
5.
What are the effective strategies to reduce victim
blaming attitudes and promote accountability for perpetrators, such as
education and awareness-raising campaigns?
6.
What are the recommendations for preventing victim
blaming, such as improving laws and policies, providing support services for
victims, and promoting positive societal attitudes towards victimization?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Legal reforms aimed at reducing
victim blaming attitudes can improve the outcomes of victimized individuals.
Explanation: This hypothesis proposes
that legal reforms aimed at reducing victim blaming attitudes can have a
positive impact on the outcomes of victimized individuals. For example, reforms
that prioritize victim safety and well-being, such as strengthening laws on
sexual assault or domestic violence, can help to reduce the prevalence of
victim blaming attitudes and encourage individuals to seek help when
victimized. Moreover, legal reforms can also signal a societal shift away from
victim blaming attitudes, which can help to reduce the stigma associated with
victimization and promote positive societal attitudes towards victims.
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research relies on secondary
data. The information was gathered from a variety of sources, including
publications, journals, published books, and government websites. These are
also mentioned in the current study. To get meaningful findings, the data
acquired for the study is examined rationally and meaningfully.
CHAPTER 2
MEANING AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 MEANING
OF VICTIM BLAMING
Victim blaming is a phenomenon in
which the victim of a crime or harmful act is held responsible or blamed for
the harm they have suffered.[2] It
is a common social and psychological reaction to crimes such as sexual assault,
domestic violence, and other forms of abuse. Victim
blaming is a harmful and damaging response to harm that can have serious
consequences for the victim, including reduced reporting rates, difficulty in
obtaining justice, and increased emotional trauma.
Victim blaming often takes the form
of questioning the victim's behaviour or actions leading up to the crime,
suggesting that they somehow contributed to the harm they suffered. For
example, in cases of sexual assault, victims may be asked what they were
wearing, whether they were drinking or using drugs, or whether they had a prior
sexual relationship with the perpetrator. This can lead to the victim feeling
shame, guilt, and self-blame, and may discourage them from reporting the crime
or seeking help.
Victim blaming is a result of
societal attitudes, cultural beliefs, and biases that are deeply ingrained and
can be difficult to overcome.[3] It
is often perpetuated by stereotypes about gender, race, and class. However,
victim blaming is not only harmful to the individual victim, but also to
society as a whole. It can perpetuate cycles of violence and abuse, and can
make it harder for survivors to obtain justice and for communities to address
and prevent harm.
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Victim blaming is not a new
phenomenon, and it has been present in many societies throughout history.
However, the ways in which it has been expressed and justified have varied over
time and across cultures.
One of the earliest examples of
victim blaming can be seen in ancient Roman law, which held women responsible
for their own rapes if they were not able to demonstrate sufficient resistance.
This attitude towards women as being responsible for their own safety persisted
throughout much of history and can still be seen in certain cultures today. Similarly, in medieval Europe, women who were
accused of adultery or other sexual misconduct were often subjected to public
shaming and punishment, and were blamed for their own victimization. This was
often done in the name of maintaining social order and protecting the
reputation of the community.
In the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, victim blaming was often used to justify the mistreatment of
minority groups, including African Americans and Jews.[4]
For example, during the Jim Crow era in the United States, white people often
blamed African Americans for their own mistreatment, arguing that they were
responsible for their own poverty and discrimination.
Historically,
Indian society has been known for its traditional practices and beliefs that
often-perpetuated victim blaming. For example, the practice of sati, where
widows were expected to immolate themselves on their husband's funeral pyre,
was justified on the grounds that it was the woman's duty and responsibility to
follow her husband even in death. This practice was abolished in the 19th
century, but similar attitudes about the role of women and their responsibility
for their own victimization persist.
During the colonial era, victim
blaming continued to be a widespread practice, with Indian women who reported
sexual assault being disbelieved, shamed, and blamed for their own
victimization.[5] The
colonial legal system was also hostile towards victims, with many laws and
policies designed to protect the interests of the colonizers rather than the
local population.
After India gained independence in
1947, there were efforts to reform the legal system and provide greater
protection for victims of violence and abuse. However, traditional attitudes
towards gender and sexuality continued to persist, and victims were often
blamed for their own victimization.
In the context of sexual assault,
victim blaming became more widespread during the feminist movements of the
1960s and 1970s. At that time, many people believed that women who dressed
provocatively or behaved in a sexually suggestive manner were somehow
responsible for the sexual assaults they experienced. This belief was
challenged by feminist activists, who argued that women had the right to dress
and behave as they pleased without fear of violence or harassment.
In recent years, there has been a
growing recognition of the importance of addressing victim blaming and
supporting survivors of violence and abuse in India. This has been driven in
part by high-profile cases such as the Delhi gang rape in 2012, which sparked
widespread protests and calls for action to address violence against women.
2.3 THEORIES OF VICTIM BLAMING
There are several theories that attempt
to explain why victim blaming occurs. Some of the key theories include:[6]
Just-world hypothesis: This theory suggests that people
have a fundamental need to believe that the world is fair and just. When bad
things happen to others, such as being victimized, it threatens this belief. As
a result, people may engage in victim blaming as a way to restore their belief
that the world is fair and that bad things happen to people who deserve it.
Attribution theory: This theory suggests that people
make attributions about the causes of events, including victimization. When
people believe that the victim had some control over the event, such as by
dressing provocatively or engaging in risky behavior, they are more likely to
blame the victim for their own victimization.
Social identity theory: This theory suggests that people
identify with certain groups, and that their beliefs and attitudes are
influenced by their group membership. When a victim belongs to a group that is
stigmatized or marginalized, such as women or minorities, people may be more
likely to engage in victim blaming as a way to distance themselves from that
group and maintain their own social identity.
Cognitive dissonance theory: This theory suggests that people
experience discomfort or dissonance when their beliefs or attitudes are
inconsistent with their actions or experiences. When people engage in victim
blaming, it may be a way to reduce the discomfort caused by their own inaction
or failure to prevent the victimization.
These theories suggest that victim
blaming is a complex phenomenon that is influenced by a range of psychological
and social factors.
CHAPTER 3
LEGAL FRAMEWORK IN INDIA
In India, there are several laws
related to victim blaming, particularly in cases of sexual assault and violence
against women. Here are some of the key legal provisions related to victim
blaming in India:
3.1 INDIAN PENAL CODE, 1860
The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act,
2013, which was passed in response to the Delhi gang rape case, increased the
punishment for sexual assault[7]
and introduced new offences such as stalking[8]
and acid attacks[9]. The Act
also includes provisions for protecting the identity of the victim and
prohibiting the publication of her name.[10]
Section 166A of the Indian Penal
Code, which was added in 2013, criminalizes the failure of a public servant to
record a sexual assault complaint. This provision was added in response to
concerns that police often discourage or dismiss complaints of sexual assault,
blaming the victim for the crime.
Section 228A of the IPC makes it an
offence to disclose the identity of a victim of certain crimes, including
sexual assault. This is important in preventing victim blaming, as it protects
the anonymity of the victim and helps to avoid stigmatization.
Section 499 (defamation): This
section provides for punishment for anyone who intentionally makes a false
statement about another person that harms their reputation. In cases of victim
blaming, where false statements are made about a victim's behavior or
character, this section can be used to prosecute the offender.
Section 503 (criminal intimidation):
This section provides for punishment for anyone who threatens another person
with harm or injury. In cases of victim blaming, where the offender uses
intimidation or threats to prevent the victim from reporting the crime or
seeking justice, this section can be used to prosecute the offender.
Section 509 (outraging the modesty of
a woman): This section provides for punishment for anyone who uses words,
gestures, or acts that are intended to insult or offend a woman's modesty. In
cases of victim blaming, where the offender makes derogatory or insulting
remarks about the victim's behavior or dress, this section can be used to
prosecute the offender.
3.2 INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT, 1872
Section 114A of the Indian Evidence
Act, which was added in 1983, allows the court to presume that the victim did
not give consent in cases of rape, if certain conditions are met. This shifts
the burden of proof onto the accused to prove that there was consent.
Section 53A of the Indian Evidence
Act, 1872: This provision prohibits questions during cross-examination that are
intended to malign the character of the victim, unless such questions are
related to the facts of the case.
Section 146 of the Indian Evidence
Act, 1872: This provision prohibits questions during cross-examination that are
intended to insult or annoy the witness or to shake their credibility, unless
such questions are related to the facts of the case.
Section 155(4) of the Indian Evidence
Act, 1872: This provision allows evidence of the character of the victim to be
admitted if such evidence is relevant to the case, but only with the permission
of the court.
3.3 PROTECTION OF WOMEN FROM
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ACT, 2005
The Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act, 2005: This act provides for protection and relief to women who
are victims of domestic violence, including physical, sexual, emotional, and
economic abuse and explicitly states that the victim should not be blamed for
the abuse. The act recognizes the importance of the victim's testimony and
prohibits questions that are intended to malign the victim's character. It
recognizes that victims of domestic violence may face victim blaming and social
stigma, and provides for legal and practical support to help them escape from
violent situations.
3.4 SEXUAL HARASSMENT OF WOMEN AT
WORKPLACE (PREVENTION, PROHIBITION AND REDRESSAL) ACT, 2013
The Sexual Harassment of Women at
Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, requires employers
to provide a safe workplace for women and take action against sexual
harassment. It recognizes that victims of sexual harassment may face victim
blaming and social stigma, and provides for a supportive and non-discriminatory
environment for women at the workplace. The act recognizes the importance of
the victim's testimony and prohibits questions that are intended to malign the
victim's character.
3.5 NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN
ACT, 1990
This law established the National
Commission for Women, a statutory body that works to protect and promote the
rights of women in India. The Commission is empowered to investigate complaints
of violence and discrimination against women, including victim blaming, and to
make recommendations to the government for policy and legal reforms.[11]
These laws reflect the efforts of the
Indian government to combat victim blaming and provide greater protection for
survivors of sexual assault and violence against women. However, implementation
and enforcement of these laws can be challenging, and there is still a long way
to go to ensure that survivors are treated with dignity and respect throughout
the legal process.
CHAPTER 4
CAUSES AND IMPACT OF VICTIM
BLAMING
4.1 FACTORS LEADING TO VICTIM
BLAMING
·
Cultural
norms and beliefs: Cultural norms and beliefs that prioritize male dominance
and female submission can create an environment where victim blaming is more
likely. For example, in some cultures, it is believed that women who are
sexually assaulted or harassed are somehow responsible for their own
victimization because they did not behave appropriately.[12]
·
Stereotypes
and biases: Stereotypes and biases based on gender, race, ethnicity, religion,
or sexual orientation can lead people to blame victims for their own victimization.
For example, a person may assume that a woman who was sexually assaulted was
somehow responsible because she was wearing revealing clothing.[13]
·
Lack
of information and education: Lack of information and education about violence
and victimization can lead people to blame victims for their own victimization.
For example, some people may not understand the dynamics of domestic violence
and believe that victims could leave the situation if they wanted to.[14]
·
Fear
and anxiety: Fear and anxiety about the possibility of becoming a victim
oneself can lead people to blame victims for their own victimization as a way
of distancing themselves from the possibility of harm.
·
Systemic and institutional factors: Systems and
institutions that prioritize the rights and perspectives of the perpetrator,
such as the criminal justice system, can contribute to victim blaming by
placing the burden of proof on the victim and assuming that their testimony is
unreliable.[15]
·
Lack
of empathy and understanding: People who lack
empathy or have difficulty putting themselves in someone else's shoes may be
more likely to blame the victim. They may not understand the impact of the
violence on the victim and may focus more on their own discomfort or
inconvenience.
·
Rape
myths: There are common myths about rape and sexual assault that can contribute
to victim blaming. These myths include the belief that women who dress
provocatively or are sexually promiscuous are more likely to be raped, or that
men cannot be raped.
Moreover, some common defence strategies
during trial also contributes to victim blaming, like:
·
Attack
the victim's credibility: The defence may try to undermine the victim's
credibility by questioning their memory, their behaviour before or after the
violence, or their motives for reporting the violence. This can include
bringing up the victim's past sexual history or character in an attempt to
discredit them.
·
Shift
blame onto the victim: The defence may try to argue that the victim's actions
or behaviour were the cause of the violence. For example, they may suggest that
the victim provoked the perpetrator, or that the victim did not take steps to
protect themselves.
·
Downplay
the severity of the violence: The defence may try to argue that the violence
was not as serious as the victim claims. This can include minimizing the harm
caused by the violence or suggesting that the victim was not in danger.
·
Challenge
the evidence: The defence may try to challenge the evidence presented by the
prosecution in an attempt to cast doubt on the victim's story. For example,
they may suggest that the evidence was mishandled or contaminated.
·
Use
societal biases and stereotypes: The defence may try to appeal to societal
biases and stereotypes about gender, race, or class to cast doubt on the
victim's story. For example, they may suggest that the victim's behaviour was
typical of someone from a particular demographic, or that the victim's story is
influenced by their biases or prejudices.
4.2 IMPACT OF VICTIM BLAMING
Victim blaming refers to the tendency
to hold victims of a crime or harmful behaviour responsible for what has
happened to them. It can have significant negative impacts on individuals and
society, including:[16]
·
Silencing victims: When victims are blamed for their
own experiences, they may be hesitant to come forward and report the incident
or seek support. This can lead to a culture of silence around issues like
sexual assault, domestic violence, and other forms of abuse.
·
Self-blame: Victims who are blamed may internalize the
message and start to believe that they are responsible for what has happened to
them. This can lead to feelings of guilt, shame, and low self-esteem, which can
have long-term effects on their mental health.
·
Impeding justice: Victim blaming can also have legal
implications, as it may lead to a reluctance to prosecute perpetrators or to
hold them accountable for their actions. This can perpetuate a cycle of abuse
and harm.
·
Normalizing harmful behavior: Victim blaming can
contribute to a culture in which harmful behavior is normalized and excused.
This can make it more difficult to create change and prevent future incidents
from occurring.
·
Disbelief and lack of support: When victims are blamed
for what happened to them, they may be less likely to seek help or report the
crime. This can result in a lack of support from friends, family, and the wider
community.
·
Perpetuation of violence: Victim blaming can also
perpetuate a culture of violence by sending the message that perpetrators are
not responsible for their actions. This can lead to a normalization of violence
and a reluctance to hold perpetrators accountable.
·
Injustice: Victim blaming can result in injustice, as
perpetrators may go unpunished or receive lighter sentences due to a belief
that the victim was somehow responsible for what happened to them.
CASES INVOLVING VICTIM BLAMING IN INDIA
There have been several high-profile
cases in Indian history that involved victim blaming. Here are a few examples:
Mathura rape case[17]:
In 1972, a tribal girl named Mathura was raped by two police officers in
Maharashtra. The trial court acquitted the accused, stating that Mathura had
given her consent to the sexual intercourse. The verdict led to widespread
protests, and the case became a landmark in the women's movement in India.
Bhanwari Devi case[18]:
In 1992, Bhanwari Devi, a lower-caste social worker, was gang-raped by five
upper-caste men in Rajasthan. The defense argued that Bhanwari Devi was lying
about the rape to get money and publicity. The trial court acquitted the
accused, but the case led to changes in the law and the introduction of the
Vishakha Guidelines on Sexual Harassment at Workplace.
Nirbhaya case[19]:
In 2012, a young woman named Jyoti Singh was brutally gang-raped and murdered
in Delhi. The defense argued that Jyoti Singh was responsible for her own rape,
as she was out at night with a male friend. The case led to widespread protests
and changes in the law, including the introduction of fast-track courts for
sexual assault cases.
Asifa Bano case[20]:
In 2018, an 8-year-old girl named Asifa Bano was gang-raped and murdered in
Jammu and Kashmir. The defense argued that Asifa Bano's rape and murder were a
part of a conspiracy to drive the nomadic Muslim community out of the area. The
case led to widespread outrage and protests, and the accused were convicted and
sentenced to life imprisonment.
Hathras rang rape and murder case[21]:
One of the recent victim-blaming cases in India that gained national attention
is the Hathras gangrape case. In September 2020, a 19-year-old Dalit woman was
allegedly gang-raped by four upper-caste men in Uttar Pradesh. She suffered
severe injuries and was admitted to a hospital, where she succumbed to her
injuries a few days later. The case received widespread outrage and protests,
with people demanding justice for the victim.
However, the victim's family was
subjected to victim-blaming and harassment. The police initially denied that a
rape had occurred, and accused the victim's family of falsely implicating the
accused. They also alleged that the victim had a relationship with one of the
accused and that the crime was a result of a personal dispute. The family was
also forced to perform the last rites of the victim in the middle of the night,
without allowing them to see the body.
CONCLUSION
AND SUGGESTIONS
Victim blaming is a pervasive problem
in India, with victims of sexual assault, domestic violence, and other crimes
often being blamed for the crimes committed against them. This can have serious
consequences, including discouraging victims from reporting crimes and
perpetuating a culture of impunity for perpetrators.
To combat victim blaming in India, it
is important to raise awareness about the issue and educate people about the
harmful effects of victim blaming. This can be done through public awareness
campaigns, educational programs in schools, and training for law enforcement
officials and other professionals who work with victims.
In addition, it is important to hold
perpetrators accountable for their actions and to ensure that they are punished
for their crimes. This can help to send a clear message that victim blaming
will not be tolerated and that perpetrators will be held responsible for their
actions.
Finally, it is important to provide
support and resources for victims, including counselling, legal assistance, and
other forms of assistance. This can help to empower victims and give them the
tools they need to heal and move forward after a traumatic experience.
In conclusion, addressing victim
blaming in India requires a comprehensive approach that involves education,
cultural change, holding perpetrators accountable, encouraging reporting, and
providing mental health support. By taking these steps, India can create a
safer and more supportive environment for victims and survivors.
[1] Paul and Norvy, ‘A study on victim
blaming of rape victims’ (2020)< https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341616862_astudy_on_victim_blaming_of_rape_victims
> accessed 21 April 2023
[2] ibid.
[3]Dhruv Rawat, ‘Rape and Victim
Blaming in India’ (2014) 4(3) Int. j. Indian psychol < https://ijip.in/wp-content/uploads/ArticlesPDF/article_39da15fecfc2c20da2ddc380709f9c7a.pdf>
accessed 21 April 2023
[4] Nazo Shinwari, ‘Victim Blaming
Promotes Rape Culture’ (Feminism India, 1 July 2019) < https://feminisminindia.com/2019/07/01/victim-blaming-rape-culture/>
accessed 20 April 2023
[5] Manisha G. Kumari, ‘the Sexual
Harassment, victim blaming and rape culture- I remember it all’ (Outlook India,
24 May 2020)
accessed 24 April 2023
[6] Megan Crippen, ‘theories of victim
blame’ (2015) Senior Honors Projects < https://collected.jcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1065&context=honorspapers
> accessed 20 April 2023
[7] Indian Penal Code 1860, s 354
[8] Indian Penal Code 1860, s 354D
[9] Indian Penal Code 1860, s 326 A
[10] Indian Penal Code 1860, s 228A
[11] Dhruv Rawat, ‘Rape and Victim
Blaming in India’ (2014) 4(3) Int. j. Indian psychol < https://ijip.in/wp-content/uploads/ArticlesPDF/article_39da15fecfc2c20da2ddc380709f9c7a.pdf>
accessed 21 April 2023
[12] Claire R. Gravelin, Monica Biernat
and Matthew Baldwin, ‘The impact of power and powerlessness on blaming the
victim of sexual assault’ (2019) 22(1) GPIR
accessed 23 April 2023
[13] ibid.
[14] ibid.
[15] ibid.
[16] Nazo (n 4)
[17] Tukaram v State of Maharashtra,
AIR 1979 SC 18
[18] Bhanwari Devi v. State of
Rajasthan, (1996) 1 SCC 166
[19] State vs. Mukesh & Ors,
(2013) 14 SCC 1
[20] Mohd. Akhtar V. The State of
Jammu and Kashmir, MANU/SC/0807/2018
[21] Satyam Dubey v. Union of India,
Writ Petition (Criminal) No. 109 of 2020.
Article Information
VICTIM BLAMING IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM: IMPLICATIONS FOR JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
Authors: SIMRAN CHAUHAN
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/01/25
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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