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MANIFESTATIONS OF SOCIOPATHY IN FEMALES: AGGRESSION, CRIMINALITY AND ERRATICISM By: Ishaan Deepak Joshi
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MANIFESTATIONS OF SOCIOPATHY
IN FEMALES: AGGRESSION, CRIMINALITY
AND ERRATICISM
Authored By: Ishaan Deepak Joshi
Institutional Affiliation: NALSAR University of Law and
MIT-WPU Faculty of Law
Phone no: +91 9158636644
Abstract
Antisocial behaviour
traits characterised by the patient's incapacity to acknowledge or respect
the rights of others. The condition gradually manifests and can alone be
diagnosed in individuals who are at least eighteen years old. The majority of
the symptoms associated with this condition typically manifest around the age
of 15. The prevalence of this illness in women poses a slightly greater
challenge compared to that in men. Therefore, doctors may find it challenging
to diagnose the condition unless they are familiar with the patient's
lifestyle. In males, it is typically manifested
through physical aggression, but in females, it tends to manifest as
manipulative behaviour.
Keywords: Antisocial Personality Disorder,
Female Criminality, Aggression, Psychopathy, Gender Roles, Manipulation
Introduction
When providing treatment to a
patient, the majority of physicians will first employ the observation approach
prior to doing more comprehensive diagnostic procedures. In the field of
psychology, the type of therapy to be used is typically determined by the
patient's background and upbringing. Despite being the most effective initial
assessment method with proven outcomes, many psychiatrists have made erroneous
judgements and performed inaccurate diagnoses. Most studies investigating the
concept of psychopathy, based on Hare's criteria, have primarily concentrated
on Caucasian males, resulting in limited applicability to other populations.[1]
Hare asserts that there is no
justification to anticipate that the applicability of the Hare Psychopathy
Checklist-Revised will not extend to females.[2] Cleckley's
initial research had two female subjects who exhibited persistent tendencies of
deceit, theft, skipping school, and engaging in numerous sexual encounters,
displaying a notable lack of concern for ethical obligations or awareness of
their problematic actions. Typically, it is believed that as females mature,
they will demonstrate feminine qualities by assuming different duties. When
individuals exhibit behaviours that deviate from the norm, it is necessary to
investigate the underlying cause of their peculiar conduct. Nevertheless,
Cleckley originally acknowledged gender disparities in the display of
psychopathic traits.[3] He
noted that these ladies exhibited the normal absence of empathy noticed in the
male patients, but without any indication of malevolent intentions or
callousness. While it is recognised by certain researchers that psychopathy
exists in both males as well as females, the study of psychopathy in females
has received less attention and has produced few scientifically validated
discoveries.
Traditionally, society does not
anticipate women to exhibit traits linked to masculinity and aggression.
Instead, they are supposed to demonstrate qualities such as nurturing, empathy,
and a general inclination towards accountability. While it is possible that
females below the age of 18 may lack maturity to exhibit some traits, society
nevertheless expects them to conform to traditional feminine norms. Early
diagnosis and treatment are necessary for young girls who exhibit atypical
levels of aggression and violence, which may deviate from typical female
behaviour, in order to address their antisocial tendencies. When addressing
this behaviour, the psychiatrist will initially assess the patient's family
history to ascertain if the issue is genetic in nature. The psychiatrist will
determine the appropriate treatment based on this diagnosis.
The diagnosis is typically conducted
in multiple stages, which might potentially lead to confusion. The aetiology of
developmental disturbances in a maturing individual may not invariably be
attributed to genetic factors, even in cases where a comparable ailment has
been documented within the familial lineage. The favourable findings obtained
during the initial phases of assessment will be utilised to provide therapy to
the individual. The remaining stages that may include crucial patient
information are disregarded. The psychiatrists' lack of knowledge may result in
providing treatment that is not highly beneficial to the patient. This will only
lead to a partial or complete failure in solving the problem.
A recent study has analysed
psychopathy in females by analysing the framework of the PCL-R, determining
pertinent cut-off ratings, and exploring associated features and
behaviours. The initial investigation
into gender in psychopathy was to determine whether there were any disparities
in the occurrence rates of psychopathy across genders. Salekin et al. assessed a
hundred and three incarcerated females using the PCL-R and determined that only
fifteen percent had psychopathic traits, based on a threshold rating of 29 on
the PCL-R.[4] The
percentage in this figure is comparatively lower than the percentages seen in
male correctional samples, which ranged from fifteen percent to thirty percent with
a cut-off rating of thirty. Forth et al. undertook an investigation comparing
psychopathic features between genders using a cohort of undergrad university
students. The results revealed that males achieved considerably higher scores
than females on the total results when utilising the PCL-R: Screening Version.[5] Zagon
and Jackson obtained same findings when they delivered the Self Report
Psychopathy Scale-II, a self-assessment tool designed based on the PCL-R, to
undergraduate college students.[6]
A contemporary study
conducted Brinkley, Newman, Smith & Vitale revealed that
among a cohort of five hundred and twenty-eight non-psychotic female criminals,
the base rate was found to be rather low, at nine percent.[7]
This result was attributed to either a lower prevalence of psychopathy amongst
females or the addition of elements in the PCL-R that fail to
appropriately measure this personality trait in women.
Although the aforementioned research
indicates that girls tend to have lower scores on psychopathy assessments
compared to males, this suggests that there may be either fewer females with
psychopathy or insufficient diagnostic instruments. Subsequent research has
confirmed the existence of female psychopathy and its significant societal
repercussions, highlighting the necessity for further targeted investigations
to elucidate the gender disparities.
Specifically, there has been evidence
of an increase in the involvement of adolescent and adult females with the
criminal judicial system. Moreover, women exhibiting psychopathic qualities had
a significantly greater tendency to reoffend and commit rule violations within
institutional settings compared to women lacking similar attributes. Dutton and
Nicholls propose that females who have significant mental problems or
intellectual disabilities may display levels of hostility that are comparable
to, and occasionally exceed, the frequency and intensity of violence observed
in males with similar conditions.[8]
These investigation results have been
notably apparent in instances of intimate relationship and child maltreatment. Currently,
the female population constitutes around forty percent and ten percent of the
total demographics in municipal and forensic mental hospitals, correspondingly.
The
Evolution of Psychopathy as a Concept: Historical Progression
In the eighteenth century,
psychiatrists such as Pinel identified a specific pattern of human
behaviours characterised by a complete absence of sorrow and self-control,
which he classified as manie sans delire. Individuals displaying these
behaviours seemed to possess average cognitive abilities but demonstrated
abnormalities in what may be referred to as ethical conduct. Since then,
there has been a significant amount of focus on comprehending the theoretical and
empirical aspects of psychopathic personality traits and behaviours.[9] The
majority of modern conceptualizations are connected to Cleckley's influential
piece, The Mask of Sanity. Cleckley identified sixteen fundamental personality
qualities linked to psychopathy through his examination of fifteen case
studies. These traits include a lack of shame, an inability to form deep
emotional connections, impulsiveness, emotional superficiality, shallow appeal
in social interactions, and a failure to learn from past experiences. These
folks lack responsibility, truthfulness, and self-awareness. In addition,
Cleckley proposed that these persons exhibit a progressive decline in moral
values, social duties, and personal commitments, resulting in their inability
to consistently pursue a meaningful life path.
Besides Cleckley's research, which
laid the groundwork for understanding psychopathy as a notion based on
interpersonal relationships, a behavior-focused strategy was successfully
utilised. This indicates a move towards a more objective and less speculative
understanding of psychopathy. The behavioural approach has played a role in
establishing the parameters of antisocial personality disorder. According to
the DSM-IV, a female diagnosed with ASPD exhibits a pattern of delinquent and
reckless behaviours that persist into adulthood. The fundamental characteristic
of these behaviours is the clear lack of consideration for, and infringement
upon, the liberties of others. Women diagnosed with antisocial personality
disorder have a consistent pattern of disregarding societal expectations
on legal conduct. They persist in committing criminal acts that entail property
destruction, which may result in harsh punishment. These individuals may lack
the ability to uphold the rights of others. They often engage in deception and
manipulation to achieve personal benefit or gratification. Individuals with
Antisocial Personality Disorder exhibit distinct behavioural characteristics
such as impatience and aggressiveness, which are demonstrated by recurrent
engagement in physical altercations or acts of assault.[10] The
criteria for antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy share many
similarities, such as a lack of concern for the rights of others, a tendency to
deceive, and a propensity for manipulation. Nevertheless, an ASPD assessment is
explicitly determined by a past record of disruptive, unlawful, or socially
reckless actions, while the classification of psychopathy is mostly based on
personality characteristics.[11]
Genders,
Norms & Psychopathy
While the literature indicates that
males tend to achieve greater scores than females on psychopathy assessments,
there is limited understanding on potential differences in the expression of
psychopathic traits between males and females. Multiple studies have
investigated disparities between genders in diverse psychopathological and
behavioural factors associated with psychopathy. Hare suggested that the
disparity in average scores between genders could be attributed to distinct
manifestations of psychopathy in males and females. Consequently, certain items
on the PCL-R could need to be adjusted. The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy is
a reasonably accurate indicator of the likelihood of male criminals repeating
criminal behaviour. Hare, Hart &
Kropp, as well as Salekin et al., have verified this connection, although
to a lesser extent, in their study including incarcerated women. However,
previous research has found that only the qualities associated to Factor 1 were
substantially associated with recurrence in females. In contrast, both Factor 1
& Factor 2 ratings were found to be prognostic of recurrence in males. Zagon
& Jackson conducted a study that examined male & female college
students. They observed a significant disparity in scores between genders in
terms of both psychological characteristics and socially deviant behaviours.
The study revealed that females had fewer psychopathic tendencies in both
areas.
In a scientific investigation,
researchers Hamburger, Lilienfeld, as well as Hogben aimed to examine gender
biases in the diagnosis of psychopathy. They hypothesised that males with
psychopathy would display signs of anti-social personality disorder, whereas
females with psychopathy would be labelled as having traits of histrionic personality
disorder.[12] Nevertheless,
the tertiary hypothesis served as the basis for further comprehensive analysis
regarding the underlying reasons for the gender disparities. The findings
revealed a strong positive correlation between the results of the masculine
elements of the gender role scale and the results on the psychopathy & ASPD
assessments. The feminine elements from the gender role test exhibited a
negative correlation with scores on the psychopathy & ASPD assessments. The
second hypothesis was largely intended to provide extra support for the main
prediction of the study. The findings suggest a link between psychopathic
behaviours and the disparities in interpersonal and behavioural development
between genders, which are influenced by gender role socialisation.
ASPD is characterised by an
individual's failure to recognise and value the rights of others. An individual
with such a disposition will encounter challenges in grasping the extent of the
harm they might be inflicting upon others. Typically, women demonstrate empathy
and care, and express specific emotions based on their environment. Nevertheless,
individuals with antisocial personality disorder exhibit a lack of
response. They remain devoid of any emotional response, regardless of the
extent of devastation they inflict. This is the rationale behind their
persistent engagement in violence and their seemingly blameless demeanour even
after causing harm to others. The resemblance between the behavioural traits
exhibited by individuals with antisocial personality disorder and
psychopaths often poses challenges for psychiatrists when it comes to making
accurate diagnoses. These illnesses typically arise from metabolic imbalances,
as well as environmental and genetic factors. The management of such is
administered based on the underlying reason. Failure to promptly diagnose and
administer appropriate therapy might result in the individual developing
persistent behavioural issues, including drug and substance dependence. These
females also face the possibility of being prosecuted and subsequently facing
lengthy sentences in prisons. The courts sometimes lack the capacity to
recognise the presence of a psychological ailment in order to administer
appropriate treatment. They must endure equivalent penalties in accordance with
the law.
Gender role socialisation refers to
the process through which individuals, including females and males, are
indoctrinated to adopt thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that align with the
established masculine and feminine standards within their society.[13] Both
women and men adopt gender-specific personality traits, behaviours, and beliefs
about the rights and societal roles associated with each gender.[14] For
instance, individuals in western nations, regardless of gender, are conditioned
to display emotions that align with the societal expectations linked to their
respective traditional gender roles. Women seem specifically encouraged to
exhibit emotions such as affection, care, and accountability, which are
associated with their traditional role as the primary carer for children. These
writers delve more into the topic of male psychologists transcending the female
gender paradigm by addressing their own biases towards women. This insight can
be a significant tool in therapy when working with anti-social female patients.
This also serves as a prime illustration of how misdiagnosis can occur. There
is a prevailing assumption that the female gender is inherently less prone to
violence and hence can be more readily controlled.[15] During
the evaluation of ASPD, clinicians may overlook the potential devastation that
a female can inflict. As this pattern persists, the women's aggressive
behaviours worsen as they are able to conduct their actions without being
detected.
Socialisation
of Psychopathic Characteristics Based on Gender
Multiple scholars have postulated
that conforming to gender roles has an impact on the formation of both
advantageous and disadvantageous personality traits. Consequently,
researchers have investigated disparities between sexes in early
outwardly-directed behaviours, which are linked to adult antisocial personality
disorder. Crick & his associates have identified two distinct forms of
aggressive behaviour, namely overt aggressiveness, and relational aggression,
in groups of kids and adolescent people. It has been observed that males
exhibit a higher prevalence of overt violence compared to females. Relational
aggression encompasses behaviours in which a young person utilises
relationships as a tool to engage in antisocial behaviour, such as threatening
peers and spreading rumours, as opposed to more overt types of aggression like
fighting and fire setting.[16] Crick
and Grotpeter precisely delineated relational aggression as the deliberate
influence on other individuals with the intention of inflicting harm upon both
the connection as well as the victim.[17]
This is accomplished through various behaviours, including the exclusion of a
female from a communal group of individuals, spreading slander about a
particular female in order to provoke rejection from her peers, or employing
threats of terminating a relationship as long as the female complies with the
aggressor's demands.
Gender disparities in aggression have
regularly been observed in study, primarily focusing on young individuals in
school environments. The study of gender disparity in aggression among adults
has primarily focused on samples from the workplace, therefore limiting its
scope.[18] Nevertheless, the results indicate that
violent behaviours might undergo developmental modifications across an
individual's lifespan while maintaining consistent underlying motivations. In
the initial phases of childhood, linguistic abilities are restricted, hence
physical aggressiveness becomes the prevailing form of expression. As an
individual's linguistic talents develop, their inclination to use language for
hostile goals also increases. During adulthood, as social abilities continue to
develop, individuals may employ increasingly advanced methods of violence that
allow them to injure a specific person without being easily identifiable.[19] The
emergence of aggressive styles is indicative of the progression of
interpersonal and cognitive growth. Additionally, these changes signify
society's endorsement and retribution towards specific behaviours. Adults who
engage in physical aggression face greater societal repercussions, including
potential job loss or extended incarceration, compared to children. Consequently, people are more likely to
manifest aggressive inclinations through imperceptible means.
Studies have demonstrated that both
adult men and women express support for hidden or concealed hostility in
the workplace. Gender differences are evident in the different types of
indirect aggression displayed, with males demonstrating aggressiveness that
appears rational and females employing methods of social manipulation.[20] The
interpersonal deception closely mirrors the relational aggressiveness commonly
observed among female adolescents.
One possible reason for the gender
disparities in aggression can be attributed to the underlying motives driving
the violent actions. Some studies have postulated that violence is targeted
towards undermining the objectives that are deemed most significant within
gender-specific peer networks.[21] For
instance, males consider social power and control over their peers to be
significant. Consequently, they engage in aggressive behaviour to undermine
someone else's level of superiority.[22] This
hypothesis aligns with the scientific findings that males exhibit essential,
bodily, & verbal violence. Most ladies do not find these sorts of social
group worries to be as prominent. Females, as opposed to males, tend to
prioritise relational matters while engaging in social interactions. Consequently,
girls who engage in harmful actions against others direct their attention
towards interpersonal matters and employ aggressive behaviours with the purpose
of inflicting substantial harm on another female's friendships or sense of
belonging within the peer group.
Concluding
Remarks
This study examines the association
between gender and psychopathic qualities, primarily focusing on the
correlation between people' gender role orientation and their manifestation of
psychopathic characteristics. Traditionally, it has been presumed that women
who conform to traditional gender norms are less likely to exhibit psychopathic
symptoms compared to those who do not conform to these roles. Contrary outcomes
are suggested for the male demographic, as conventional males are expected to
display a greater number of psychopathic characteristics compared to
non-traditional males. This study aims to provide additional understanding of
the concept of psychopathy, with potential consequences for clinical practise,
correctional facilities, and future research.[23] Specifically,
with regards to evaluation and practical methods, we would be more proficient
in identifying distinct psychopathic characteristics displayed by girls and
males.
On the whole, the research indicates
a noteworthy occurrence of female psychopathy, but the frequency seems to be
lower compared to males. Hence, it is as crucial and imperative to precisely
evaluate the recidivism rates and propensity for violence among female
offenders in a forensic investigation, medical, as well as social settings,
just as it is done for male criminals.[24]
Given the possible gender
disparities, it is increasingly crucial to have a deeper understanding of the
distinct elements of female psychopathy, instead of relying on generalisations
derived from studies on male psychopathic tendencies.[25]
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[2] Hare, R. D. (1998): The NATO
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[3] Cleckley, H. (1982): The Mask of
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[4] Salekin, R., Rogers, R., &
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[5] Forth, A. E., Kisslinger, T.,
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[7] Vitale, J. E., Smith, S. S.,
Brinkley, C. A. & Newman, J. P. (2002): The reliability and validity of the
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[8] Dutton, D. & Nicholls, T.
(2005): The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: Part
1—the conflict of theory and data: Aggression and Violent Behavior 10, 680–714.
[9] Hare, R.D. (1991): The Hare
Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
[10] Millon, T., Simonsen, E., Smith M.
et al. (1998): Psychopathy: Antisocial, Criminal and Violent Behavior. Guilford
Press
[11] Lilienfeld, S.O., & Hess, T.
(2001): Psychopathic personality traits and somatization: Sex differences and
the mediating role of negative emotionality. Journal of Psychopathology and
Behavioral Assessment, 23, 11-24.
[12] Hamburger, M. E., Lilienfeld, S.
O., & Hogben, M. (1996): Psychopathy, gender, and gender roles:
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Personality Disorders, 10, 41-55.
[13] Krause, E.D., DeRosa, R.R., &
Roth, S. 2002: “Gender, trauma themes, and PTSD: Narratives of male and female
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[16] Crick, N. R. (1997): Engagement in
gender normative versus gender non-normative forms of aggression: Links to
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[17] Grotpeter, J. K., & Crick, N.
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[18] Hazler, R., Powell, R., &
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[19] Lescheid, A.W., Cummings, et al.
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Article Information
MANIFESTATIONS OF SOCIOPATHY IN FEMALES: AGGRESSION, CRIMINALITY AND ERRATICISM By: Ishaan Deepak Joshi
Authors: Ishaan Deepak Joshi
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2023/11/23
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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