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IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES CONCERNING MODERN TECHNIQUES IN CONDUCTING THE CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS BY: PROF.(DR.) S. JAMES & RENUBALA WAHENGBAM
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IMPORTANCE
OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES CONCERNING MODERN TECHNIQUES IN
CONDUCTING THE CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS
AUTHORED BY: PROF.(DR.) S. JAMES
Wahengbam Dean Of Humanities &
Law
Manipur International University
Imphal-795140, Manipur, India
CO-AUTHOR: RENUBALA WAHENGBAM
Ph.D. Scholar
Department of Law
MIU, Imphal,
ABSTRACT
Forensic
Science is concerned with a broad range of medical, legal, and ethical issues,
as well as human rights. Forensic Science is the application of medical science
to solve legal problems. The importance of Forensic Science and its usefulness
has been widely discussed in this medico-legal journal entitled. A better
understanding and cooperation have resulted and facilitated in a smoother
working of both, the medical and the legal field of work. This Journal has
specially explained how previously unsolvable cases are now solved with ease
with the development of the field of forensic science, and it covers in its
ambit, the provision of evidence for a wide range and scope of cases. It can be
used to determine the paternity of a child, and also be employed in determining
the identity of human bodies that have been mutilated beyond recognition in
accidents like bomb blasts, and factory explosions. This medico-legal journal
has fully explained how it can be appropriated to solve cases involving murder
or rape, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Forensic
science signifies the application of the methods of the natural and physical sciences
to investigate the matters of criminal and civil
laws. Forensic
science can be involved not only in the investigation and prosecution of crimes such as rape, murder, and drug
trafficking but also in matters in which a crime has not been committed but in
which someone is charged with a civil wrong, such as willful pollution
of air or water or causing
industrial injuries.
Forensic
science is used in the investigation of crime. For example, in forensic
science, a criminal case often be investigated on a piece of evidence such as
hair, blood trace or footprint. In many high-profile cases have attracted
enormous media attention and enhanced interest in recent years. In this way,
the principle of crime scene management, thus it explores how forensic
scientists work and may consider the techniques that forensic scientists
use[1].
The
importance of forensic science is primarily associated with crime and crime
scene investigations.
We
instantly start picturizing high-tech computers, UV lights, and criminal labs
furnished with high-end equipment. Well, that is the image that modern-day
crime shows have created of a forensic investigator. Interested to know the
importance of forensic science over the ages? We have the answers right here.
Presenting the brief history of forensic science.
TRACING THE ROOTS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT TIMES
The history
of forensic science awaits exploration as forensic science as a discipline was
not much spoken about until recently. On increasing the cognizance of the
subtle importance of forensic science in the past, one cannot but amp up the
reverence for this field of science.
The word
forensic has its origin from the Latin word “forensis” which stands for a
forum. Forensic Science is used in tandem with any discipline that has
associations with the legal system. In a nutshell, forensic science is the
application of scientific methods and principles to questions of law. Or, in
layman’s terms, forensic science is a discipline used by a forensic
investigator to solve crimes[2].
THE EVOLUTION
OF FORENSIC SCIENCE,
OVER TIME
THE BUILDING BLOCKS IN THE HISTORY OF FORENSIC
SCIENCE-THE ORIGIN
Forensic
science as a part of the modern-day criminal justice system is still in its
formative years. Interestingly, the importance of forensic science dates back
to some of the ancient civilizations. The earliest application of forensic
science dates back to ancient Greek and Roman societies.
Those
civilizations made significant contributions to the field of medicine,
especially pharmacology. Their research on the production, use, and symptoms of
toxins made the study of their use in past murders possible.
HISTORY OF AUTOPSY
Did you
know that the Egyptian civilization back in 3000 BC performed the first
instance of an ‘autopsy’? They performed the religious practice of the removal
and examination of the internal organs of humans after their death. Thus, they
are the earliest civilizations to perform an autopsy. Interestingly, the first
officially recorded autopsy was performed way back in 44 BC.
This was
when a Roman physician, Antistius, examined the slain body of Roman politician
and general, Julius Ceaser. The autopsy revealed that though stabbed 23 times,
his death resulted from one wound through his chest.
IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN THE EARLY ROMAN
DYNASTY
Early in
the 1st century AD, Roman orator and jurist Quintilian used basic forensics to
acquit an innocent. The Roman model forms the foundation of the modern-day
court and legal system. Thus, the application of scientific principles in the
examination of evidence in ancient Rome is not surprising. However, with the
fall of the Roman Empire in the West, the applications of forensic science in
criminal justice stagnated over the next millennium.
EARLY METHODS OF FORENSIC EXAMINATION USED BY A
FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR
The history
of forensic science dates back thousands of years. Fingerprinting was one of
its first applications. The ancient Chinese used finger prints to identify
business documents. In 1892, a eugenicist, an adherent of the often prejudiced
system of scientific classification named Sir Francis Galton established the
first system for classifying finger prints. Sir Edward Henry, commissioner of
the Metropolitan Police of London, developed his own system in 1896 based on
the direction, flow, pattern and other characteristics in finger prints. The
Henry Classification System became the standard for criminal finger printing
techniques world-wide.
One of Song
Ci’s account in his book talks about the basic methods used to crack a murder
case. First, the investigator tested various blades on an animal carcass and
compared the wound to the actual one. This helped him deduce that the weapon
used to commit the murder was a sickle. Next, he asked every resident of the
crime area to bring their sickles to one location. Eventually, the murderer
confessed when the smell of blood caused flies to gather on his sickle. The
book also provided methods and logic to estimate if a death resulted from
suicide, accident or murder.
EARLIEST APPLICATION OF THE LIE DETECTOR OR POLYGRAPH
TEST BY A FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR
The
earliest precursor to the Polygraph test was the examination of the saliva,
mouth, and tongue of a suspect to deduce innocence or guilt.
For
example, in ancient India, the suspect’s mouth was filled with some dry rice
and in China with rice powder. They were then asked to spit it out. In some
middle - eastern cultures, the accused would have to lick heated metal rods
briefly. The principle used for these methods was that a guilty person would
produce less saliva. Thus, if rice got stuck in their mouths or if their
tongues got severely burnt, they were pronounced guilty.
THE GLORIOUS 16TH & 17TH CENTURIES IN THE HISTORY
OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
In
16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings
began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a
French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on
internal organs. Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia,
laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in
the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century,
writings on these topics began to appear. These included A Treatise on Forensic
Medicine and Public Health by the French physician Francois Immanuele Fodéré
and The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical expert Johann
Peter Frank.
In 16th
century Europe, the gathering of information on the cause and manner of death
was first initiated by medical practitioners. A French army surgeon, Ambroise
Paré, methodically studied the effect that violent death has on internal
organs.
Italian
surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia laid the foundation of modern
pathology. They achieved this through a study of the changes occurring in the
structure of the body due to a disease. With the dawn of the 17th century, the
importance of forensic science received a boost resulting in other advancements
in science[3].
MODERN FORENSIC SCIENCE TECHNIQUES & AND TAKING
THEIR SHAPE
The
forthcoming centuries witnessed a resurrection of forensic science with an
increase in the application of science in solving crimes.
Techniques
such as matching evidence like clothing fibers and footprints to those found on
a suspect starting gaining popularity. Gradually, criminal investigations
started revolving more around evidence-based and rational approaches. Soon, the
validity of confessions under duress and belief in occult practices such as
witchcraft started diminishing in the courts. Eventually, development of the
technique of finger print analysis took place in 1880[4].
ACCIDENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
Accidental
characteristics are the unique marks and features that develop on any item
resulting from wear and tear. Looking back at the Nike Air Jordan Running Shoe,
to make a positive match of a suspect’s shoe to the impression found at the
crime scene, the crime scene impression would be examined for nicks, gouges,
and wear patterns typically present on a worn shoe. These features would then
be compared to a rolled impression of a suspect’s shoe, and if the same nicks,
gouges, and wear patterns could be shown in all the same locations on the
suspect’s shoe, a positive match could be made.
This Level
Two method of comparison for things, such as shoe prints, tire prints, glove
prints, and tool impressions, is the practice of physical matching.
Investigators can often use these physical matchings to link the suspect back
to the crime scene or the victim. Finding a suspect in possession of a shoe, a
tire, or a tool that is a positive match to an impression at the criminal event
is a powerful piece of circumstantial evidence. With items, such as broken
glass and plastic fragments, the process of physical matching requires
significantly greater levels of expertise. At Level One, these items are first
matched for general characteristics, such as material color and thickness;
however, the process for making the comparison of broken edges requires
microscopic examination and photographic overlay comparison of broken edge
features to demonstrate a positive match. For investigators, this kind of
comparison can be called upon where there is broken glass at a crime scene and
fragments of glass have been found on a suspect’s clothing, or in cases where
glass or plastic fragments are left at the scene of a hit-and-run car crash and
a suspect vehicle is found with damage that includes similarly broken items[5].
Glass fracture analysis can also be used to demonstrate which side of a piece
of glass received the impact that caused the fracture. This can be a helpful
tool in confirming or challenging a version of events, such as insurance fraud,
break-in reports, and motor vehicle crashes where the damage has been
exaggerated or staged. Glass fracture analysis can also be used to demonstrate
the sequence and order in which a series of bullets have passed through the
glass of a window. This can be helpful for an investigator to establish the
origin location of the shooter, and, in cases of a drive-by shooting, the direction
of travel.
The
forensic science analysis covered the following modes of analysis:
Physical
Matching
Finger
print Matching Hair and fiber analysis Ballistic Analysis Blood Spatter
Analysis DNA Analysis
Forensic
Pathology Chemical Analysis
Forensic Anthropology
Forensic Entomology Forensic Odontology Forensic Engineering
Criminal
Profiling Geographic Profiling Forensic Data Analysis Forensic Document
Analysis
Forensic
Identification Sections Crime Detection Laboratories
Various
types of physical evidence can be found at almost any crime scene. The types of
evidence and where it is found can assist investigators to develop a sense of
how the crime was committed. Tool marks where a door was forced open can
indicate a point of entry, shoe prints can show a path of travel, and blood
stains can indicate an area where conflict occurred. Each of these pieces of
physical evidence is a valuable exhibit capable of providing general
information about spatial relationships between objects, people, and events. In
addition, the application of forensic examination and analysis could turn any
of these exhibits into a potential means of solving the crime.
PHYSICAL MATCHING
If we think
back to the example where the Bow Street Runners made a physical match from the
torn edges of one piece of wadding paper to the original sheet from which it
was torn, we can appreciate that physical matching is a forensic technique that
can be applied, to some extent, by the investigator personally viewing and
studying details of the evidence. At this level, physical matching can be used
by investigators to do on-site analysis of evidence. That said, the more
sophisticated aspects of physical matching do require the expertise of a person
trained in the techniques to form and articulate an opinion that the court will
accept as expert evidence. During a crime investigation, physical matching is
typically conducted on items, such as finger prints, shoe prints, tire prints,
glove prints, tool impressions, broken glass, plastic fragments, and torn edges
of items, such as paper, tape, or cloth. In these physical matchings, two
levels of examination are typically considered; an examination for class
characteristics and an examination for accidental characteristics.
FINGER PRINT MATCHING
The forensic
science of finger print has a longstanding history in policing. Finger prints
have been accepted as being individually unique to each person. The courts
frequently accept positive finger print matches conducted by an expert witness,
as proof of identity beyond a reasonable doubt.
Prior to
the modern advent of DNA analysis and biometric scanning technologies for
positive identification, finger prints and dental record x-rays were the only
truly positive means of making a conclusive identification.
Finger prints
are unique patterns of lines and ridges that exist on the areas of our hands
and finger tips, known as the plantar surfaces. These unique patterns have been
classified in categories and features since the late 1800’s. The various
categories and features allow each digit of a person’s fingers to be catalogued
in a searchable system or database. These unique categories and features do not
change throughout a person’s life, unless they are subjected to damage through
physical injury or intentional abrasion. The impressions of our finger prints
are often left on items we touch because the oils our bodies produce act like
an invisible ink adhering to smooth surfaces we touch, thus transferring these
finger print impressions to those surfaces. These virtually invisible image
transfers are commonly called latent finger prints, and they are easily made
visible on most surfaces through the application of colored finger printing
powder that adheres to the oils left by our fingers. The powder sticking to the
oil reveals the image of lines and ridges that make up the finger print. It is
also possible for a finger print impression to be exposed on surfaces, such as
plastic, dry paper, or paint though a process of chemical fuming that reacts
with the oils of the finger print changing their color, thereby exposing the
image. Finger prints are sometimes also visible when they are transferred to an
object because the finger has some foreign material on it, such as ink or
blood. Other forms of visible finger prints can be found as an actual molded
impression of the finger print when a person touches a malleable surface, such
as clay or cheese.
The unique
lines and ridges of an unknown finger print can be searched in a data base of
known criminal finger prints for identification. Today, this type of search is
done electronically using a biometric scanning process known as Automated
Finger print Identification System (AFIS). For smaller partial prints,
identification of a suspect requires sorting through possible suspects and
conducting specific searches of print characteristics to make a match. If the
person who left the print does not have a criminal record or their finger
prints are not on file, the only way a comparison can be made is to obtain a
set of finger print impressions from that person. When this is done, the print
examination will be conducted by a trained finger print expert who will search
the print to establish as many points of comparison between the suspect print
and the known-print as possible. The general accepted standard for accepting a
match is to find ten points of comparison.
The
location and identification of a suspect’s finger print at the scene of a
crime, or on some crime-related object, is strong circumstantial evidence from
which the court can draw the inference that the suspect is, in some way,
connected to the crime. The investigative challenge of finding a suspect’s
print is to eliminate other possible ways that the print may have been left at
the scene, other than through involvement in the crime[6].
HAIR AND FIBER ANALYSIS
In
considering once again “Locard’s Theory of Evidence Transfer,” it was suggested
that a person cannot be at the scene of a crime without leaving something
behind, and cannot leave the scene of a crime without taking something with
them. Exhibits of hair and fiber fit support this theory well. As humans, we
are constantly shedding materials from our bodies and our clothing. We enter a
room and we leave behind strands of hair that fall from our heads, oily
impressing of our finger prints as we touch objects, and fibers of our clothing
materials. As we leave a room, we take away hairs from other occupants of the
room or fibers from the carpet and furniture adhering to our clothing. The
analysis of hair and fiber, although not an exact science, can provide
corroborative evidence[7]. Hair samples can be compared by taking a shed sample
at the crime scene to the hair from a suspect to establish a similarity within
a limited degree of certainty. If the hair happens to have been pulled out and
still has root tissue, there is a possibility for more identification using DNA
analysis. Somewhat more identifiable than hair samples, fiber samples can often
be narrowed down to make a higher probability comparison using microscopic
examination for size, color, and type between an unknown sample and a control
sample.
BALLISTIC ANALYSIS
Given the
number of gun-related crimes, the understanding of ballistic analysis is
important for investigators. Ballistics is the study of all things that are launched
into flight, how they are launched, and how they fly. In most cases,
investigators find themselves dealing with several common types of firearms.
Handguns as
either semi-automatic pistols or revolvers Long rifles that are single shot
bolt action, automatic, or semi-automatic Shotguns that are breach loading or
chambered pump action. There are techniques in ballistic science that address
the unique aspects of firearms and bullets. Because ballistic comparisons seek
to determine if a particular gun was the originating source of an unknown
bullet or cartridge casing, this examination process is sometimes referred to
as ballistic finger printing[8]. The analogy being that if a particular gun
touches a particular bullet or cartridge-casing, it will leave behind some
unique identifiable marks or a ballistic fingerprint.
BALLISTIC FINGER PRINTS
When a
modern-day firearm is being loaded to fire, the cartridge loaded into the gun
is composed of several components. The bullet portion of the cartridge is tightly
pressed into a brass tube, called the casing. At the bottom of this brass
casing is a round, flat base slightly larger than the casing, and this base
prevents the casing from sliding completely into the cartridge chamber of the
gun when being loaded. On the bottom of this flat base of the cartridge is the
primer. When the trigger is pulled, the primer is the portion of the cartridge
that will be struck by the firing pin of the gun. When struck, the primer
ignites the gun powder contained inside the brass casing with an explosion that
causes the bullet to leave the casing, travel down the gun barrel, and exit the
gun.
Each of the
components of the cartridge casing can be examined forensically and comparisons
can be made to suspect guns. In some instances, it is possible to determine if
a cartridge has been fired from the chamber of a specific gun. This can be done
by examining the unique and identifiable marks left by the four aforementioned
components of the gun. Like the process of physical matching, this is also a
two-level process[9].
At Level
One, cartridges are classified by the caliber, which is the size of the bullet,
the maker of the cartridge, and the primer location; either a Centre-fire or a
rim-fire cartridge on the cartridge base. For ballistic purposes, guns are
classified by their caliber, chambering, ejector mechanisms, and firing pin,
namely either Centre-fire or rim-fire. Eliminations of suspect weapons can
often be made at Level One. For instance, a .38 caliber bullet removed from a crime
scene cannot have been fired from a .22 caliber weapon. Or, that same .38
caliber bullet showing marks from an ejector mechanism could not have been
fired from a .38 caliber revolver that does not have an ejector mechanism.
At Level
Two, the more decisive ballistic fingerprint comparisons are often made using
the following methods:
·
Striations Matching;
·
Chamber Markings;
·
Firing-Pin Comparison; and
·
Ejector markings.
STRIATIONS MATCHING AND CARTRIDGE
CHAMBER MARKINGS
Bullets
fired from either a handgun or long rifle, other than a shotgun, fire a single
projectile each time. This fired projectile is a lead or lead-composite bullet.
When fired, this bullet travels down the barrel of the gun and begins to spin
because the inside of the gun barrel has been intentionally machined with long
gently turning grooves, called rifling. These grooves catch the soft-lead sides
of the bullet spinning it like a football, and this spinning makes the bullet
travel straighter and truer to the target. As a result of these grooves
designed into gun barrels, every bullet fired will arrive at its target with
markings etched into the bullet material from contact with the grooves in the
barrel. These etched markings are called striations, and they are uniquely
identifiable back to the gun they were fired from. For an investigator, these
striations create an opportunity to match the bullet to the gun that fired
it[10]. Recovered bullets can be recovered and compared to test bullets fired
from a suspected gun. When striations of a recovered bullet are compared to
known samples fired from a suspected gun, a side- by-side microscopic technique
is used to match striation markings. An expert ballistic examiner can sometimes
identify and illustrate matches in the striations to make a positive match.
CARTRIDGE CHAMBER MARKINGS
When a
cartridge is loaded into the chamber of a gun, the shiny brass casing comes
into contact with the hard steel sides of the chamber. This chambering of the
cartridge can leave unique and identifiable scratch marks on the side of the
casing. A cartridge casing ejected or unloaded from a weapon and left at the
crime scene can sometimes be matched to the suspect gun by comparing these
markings.
FIRING PIN COMPARISON AND BLOOD SPATTER ANALYSIS
When the
firing pin of any gun strikes the primer on the bottom of a cartridge, it
leaves an indentation mark. This firing pin indentation can sometimes be
matched to the firing pin of a suspect weapon. This requires microscopic
examination that looks for the unique characteristics of the firing pin that
becomes impressed into the soft metal of the primer when the firing contact
happens.
Ejector
Mechanism Markings[11].
Methods for
loading and unloading weapons have evolved considerably due to different gun
designs. The simplest guns allow the user to open the breach of the gun
exposing the cartridge chamber to manually insert the cartridge and close the
breach to make it ready for firing. There is no ejector mechanism for these
guns, so there will be no ejector marks left on the base of a cartridge when it
is unloaded from the weapon. Other guns have a variety of different ejector
methods, including ejectors that catch the base of the cartridge casing to
physically pull it from the breach and eject it away from the gun. In cases where
a gun does have an ejector mechanism, these mechanisms leave very distinct and
unique marks on the soft brass cartridge base. These markings can sometimes be
compared and matched back to the ejector of a suspect weapon. With this broad
variety of ballistic comparison techniques, an investigator has a significant
number of tools that can be deployed and strategies that can be engaged to
assist in matching a bullet to the gun that fired it. Considering these tools,
the cartridge casing left at the scene of a shooting can be as important as a
bullet removed from the body of a shooting victim. An investigator needs to
keep this in mind when seizing cartridge casings as evidence. Great care needs
to be exercised to document the location where each individual casing was
found, and to preserve each casing in a manner that does not degrade the
possible markings that could enable a match to be made. Damage can be done by
placing casings into a common bag where they can rub against each other causing
more characteristics and obliterating existing marks.
TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS
In addition
to the ballistic finger printing examinations, another area of ballistic
science is known as trajectory analysis. The trajectory of a bullet is the path
it travels from the time it leaves the barrel of the gun to the point where it
finally loses the propulsion energy of the gunpowder and comes to rest. The
flight of a bullet can be very short, as in the case of a point-blank shooting,
where a victim is shot at very close range, or it can be very distant where the
target is one mile away or more, as in the case in some sniper shootings.
When the
bullet is travelling a longer distance, it travels that distance in an arched
path or trajectory of travel as it is pulled towards the ground by gravity.
When the bullet arrives at its destination, it will have a distinct angle of
entry into the target. This angle of entry can sometimes be calculated as
trajectory to estimate the geographic location of the originating shot. In
cases where a bullet passes through several objects, such as two walls of a
house, the trajectory of the bullet can be used to determine where the shooter
was located. In cases of drive-by shootings, for example, where several shots
are fired, the pattern of trajectories can show if the shooter was moving and,
if so, demonstrate the direction of travel.
BLOOD SPATTER ANALYSIS
Blood
spatter analysis, also known as blood stain pattern analysis, is a relatively
new forensic specialty. The purpose of this analysis is to determine the events
of a crime where blood has been shed. This is accomplished through the careful
examination of how blood is distributed inside the crime scene. Studies have
shown that when blood is released during an attack, certain patterns of
distribution can be expected. For instance, a person being struck with a
baseball bat will begin to bleed, and blood will be distributed in a droplet
spatter pattern in the direction of the strike behind the victim. These
droplets of blood will have a direction of travel that will be indicated by the
directional slide of each droplet as the bat hits objects in its path. Blood
from the victim adhering to the bat can also be distributed when the bat is on
the upstroke for the next strike. This blood will be distributed in an upward
directional slide pattern, for example, up a wall, onto a ceiling, or behind
the attacker. Calculations of how many strikes were made may become evident
from the tracking of multiple streams of droplets behind the victim and the
attacker. Given this developing science, blood spatter analysis can be useful
in criminal event reconstruction[12].
DNA ANALYSIS
DNA, or
deoxyribo nucleic acid, is a molecule that holds the genetic blueprint used in
the development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms. As
such, it carries the unique genetic information and hereditary characteristics
of the cells from which living organism are formed. Except for identical twins,
the DNA profile of each living organism is unique and distinct from other organisms
of the same species. There are some rare cases where one person may carry two
distinct types of DNA, known as Chimera where paternal twin embryo merge during
gestation, or in cases where a bone marrow transplant enables the production of
the marrow donor DNA in the recipient’s blood. In these rare cases, a person
may test for two distinct DNA profiles for different parts of their body.
In human
beings, DNA comparison can enable high-probability matches to be made between
discarded bodily substances and the person from whom those substances
originated. Bodily substances containing cellular material, such as blood,
semen, seminal fluid, saliva, skin, and even hair root tissue can often be
compared and matched back to its original owner with high statistical
probabilities of comparison. Sometimes, even very old bodily substances, such
as dried blood, dried saliva, or seminal stains, can be analyzed for a DNA
profile. The introduction of DNA analysis has allowed investigators for
advocates to re-examine historical evidence and exonerate persons wrongfully
convicted and imprisoned for criminal offences[13].
DNA is a
very powerful tool for investigators and can be considered anytime discarded
bodily material is found at a crime scene. Even very small amounts of material
can yield enough material for DNA comparison. Importantly, DNA data-banks of
known criminals and unsolved crimes are now becoming well-established in North
America. When a person is convicted of certain criminal offences, DNA is
collected and submitted to these data bases.
FORENSIC PATHOLOGY
Forensic
Pathology is the process of determining the cause of death by examining the
dead body during an autopsy. An autopsy generally takes place in the pathology
department of a hospital. In the case of a suspicious death or a confirmed
homicide, police investigators will be present at an autopsy to gather
information, take photographs, and seize exhibits of a non-medical nature, such
as clothing, bullet fragments, and items that might identify the body. These
items would include personal documents, finger prints, and DNA samples.
During an
autopsy, a forensic pathologist dissects the body carefully examining,
documenting, and analyzing the body parts to determine the cause of death. In
the first stage of an autopsy, the pathologist examines the body for external
injuries and indicators of trauma that may provide a cause of death. In this
first stage of examination, the pathologist will estimate the time of death by
observing evidence of four common post-mortem (after-death) indicators. These
are body temperature, the degree of rigor mortis, post-mortem lividity, and
progress of decomposition.
BODY TEMPERATURE
Algor
Mortis is the scientific name given to the loss of body temperature after death
which can sometimes be used to estimate the time of death. This is a viable
technique in cases where the body is being examined within 24 hours following
death. This method of estimating the time of death can vary significantly
depending upon many possible variables, such as:
·
Ambient room temperature being within a normal range
of approximately 22° Celsius
·
Pre-death body temperature of the victim not being
elevated by illness or exertion
·
Thickness of clothing that might insulate the body
temperature escape
·
The temperature and conductivity of the surface the
body was located on that could artificially increase or decrease temperature
loss
Considering
a normal body temperature of 37° Celsius at the time of death, it can be
estimated that the body will cool at a rate of 1° – 1.5° Celsius per hour. This
calculation is known as the Glister Equation. So, taking an internal rectal
temperature and subtracting that from 37° Celsius will provide an estimate of
the number of hours that have passed since the time of death. For example, a
dead body with a measured temperature of 34° Celsius would provide a time range
of 3 to 4.5 hours since the time of death.
RIGOR MORTIS
Rigor
mortis is a term used to describe the stiffening of the body muscles after
death. A dead body will go from a flaccid or limp muscle condition to one where
all the muscles become contracted and stiff causing the entire body to become
constricted into a fixed position. After being in a constricted and fixed
position, the muscles eventually become flaccid again. In normal room
temperatures, this stiffening of muscles and the relaxing again has a
predictable time progression of approximately 36 hours. In this progression,
the stiffening of muscles will take approximately 12 hours, the body will
remain stiff for 12 hours and will progressively become flaccid again over the
next 12 hours[14].
Stiffening
of muscles begins with the small muscles of the hands and face during the first
2 to 6 hours, and then progresses into the larger muscle groups of the torso,
arms, and legs over the next 6 to 12 hours. These are general rules; however,
the rate of rigor mortis can be different for infants, persons with extreme
muscle development, or where extensive muscle activity precedes death, such as
a violent struggle.
In determining
the time of death in average environmental temperatures, Cox recommended that:
1. If the body
feels warm and is flaccid, it has been dead for less than 3 hours
2. If the body
feels warm and is stiff, it has been dead for 3 to 8 hours
3. If the body
feels cold and stiff, it has been dead for 8 to 36 hours
4. If the body
feels cold and is flaccid, it has been dead more than 36 hours
POST-MORTEM LIVIDITY
Post-mortem
lividity refers to a discoloration or staining of the skin of a dead body as
the blood cells settle to the lowest part of the body due to gravity. This
discoloration will occur across the entire lower side of a body; however, in
places where parts of the body are in contact with the floor or another solid
object, the flesh compresses and staining will not occur in that area. The
staining is a reddish-purple coloring, and it starts to become visible within 1
hour of death and becomes more pronounced within 4 hours. Within the first 4
hours, lividity stains are not fixed and, if the body is moved, the blood products
will shift and stain the part of the body that has become lower. In most cases,
these stains become fixed between 12 and 24 hours. As such, they can be viewed
as an indicator of how the body was left at the time of death. Importantly, if
a body is found with post- mortem lividity stains, not at the lowest point in
the body, it can be concluded that the body has been moved or repositioned
after a 12 to 24-hour stain setting period[15].
DECOMPOSITION
This is the
final indicator a pathologist can look at to estimate the time of death.
Sometimes, dead bodies are not discovered in time to use body temperature,
rigor mortis, or early lividity indicators to estimate a more exact time of
death. In these cases, assessing the progress of decomposition becomes
important. Decomposition starts as soon as the body ceases to be alive. Subject
to environmental conditions of extreme heat or cold, the readable signs of
decomposition will become apparent 36 to 48 hours after death (Enki Village,
2017). These signs include bloating of the body and a marbling discoloration of
the skin in a spider web pattern along surface blood vessels. As the body
continues to decay, the skin surface will open and body fluids will begin to
seep out. In advanced stages of decomposition, the body is often no longer
identifiable by facial recognition, and DNA testing or dental records become
the tools to determine identity. At very advanced stages of decomposition,
flies and maggots begin to emerge, and the number of life cycles of the maggot-to-fly
can be estimated by a forensic entomologist to provide the amount of time that
has passed since these insect life cycles began[16].
Once these
preliminary examinations have been made, the pathologist will cut the corpse
open to conduct a detailed internal examination of each organ to look for signs
of trauma, disease, or external indicators that might explain the cause of
death, such as water in lungs or toxins in blood.
CAUSES OF DEATH
There are a
wide range of possible causes of death and pathologists are trained to look for
these indicators, gather the evidence, and develop an expert opinion regarding
the cause of death. Causes of death can include:
·
Laceration or Stabbing
·
Shooting
·
Blunt force trauma
·
Asphyxiation
·
Toxic substances
·
Electrocution
·
Depriving necessities of life
In cases of
laceration or stabbing, wounds are inflicted by a sharp weapon or pointed
object. The pathologist will attempt to determine if the death was caused by
damaging a vital organ or by blood loss. The distinction here is that a person
may be cut or stabbed in a way that causes them to bleed to death, which will
be indicated to the pathologist by only a small amount of blood remaining in
the body. Alternately, a laceration or stab wound may penetrate the heart,
lungs, or brain in a way that causes the organ to stop functioning and causes
death. In these cases, the pathologist will decide and render an opinion of
fatal organ damage[17].
In cases of
stabbing, the pathologist can sometimes illustrate the entry point of the wound
and trace the wound path to determine an angle of entry indicating how the stab
wound was inflicted. The size, depth, and width of the wound may indicate the
size and type of weapon used to create the injury. Similarly, examining the
characteristics of the wound can provide information to allow the pathologist
to offer an expert opinion on the direction of a laceration or cut wound by
illustrating the start point and the termination point. This information can be
helpful for investigators in reconstructing or confirming the actual actions
and weapons used in a criminal event.
In cases of
shooting, the pathologist will decide whether death was caused by the fatal
destruction of a vital organ or by blood loss. Recovery of a bullet or
fragments of a bullet from inside the body can be helpful in ballistic
analysis. Examining the entry wound can sometimes indicate the distance from
which the wound was inflicted. In cases of point-blank or direct contact
shootings, gunshot (burned gun powder) residue will be present at the entry
point of the wound. As with stab wounds, the pathway that the bullet travelled
from the entry point into the body to where it came to rest can sometimes be
identified by a pathologist to determine the angle of entry. For investigators,
this information can help reconstruct the criminal event and determine the
location of the shooter. In cases of self-inflicted gunshot wounds, a
point-blank entry point and a bullet path indicating a logical weapon position
in the hand of the victim can provide some confirmation or contradiction of the
self-inflicted wound theory.
In cases of
blunt force trauma, the pathologist will look for indications of organ
destruction or massive internal bleeding causing death. Blunt force trauma can
be inflicted in many ways, such as massive sudden trauma from a fall from a
great height, or a high-speed car crash that can immediately damage the brain,
the heart, or the lungs to the point where they cease to function resulting in
death. Other blunt force traumas, such as a strike to the head with a weapon,
may not immediately cause death, but result in massive bleeding and internal
accumulation of blood that can cause death. In cases of head injuries
pathologists will sometimes be able to determine the contact point where the
injuries were inflicted, and they will be able to point to the contrecoupe
injury effect, which happens when the head is struck on one side and the brain
is so traumatically moved inside the skull that it also become damaged on the
opposite side and bleeding occurs at the top of the brain. This bleeding inside
the skull can sometimes cause death.
In a
similar effect, Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS), (Elsevier, 2016) occurs when an
infant child is violently shaken by a person and the baby’s brain moves back
and forth traumatically inside the skull causing bruising and sometimes fatal
bleeding at the front and back of the brain. An examination by the pathologist
for the contact points and internal bleeding can provide valuable clues to how
the blunt force trauma was inflicted. According to An Investigator’s Manual for
Shaken Baby Syndrome, studies indicate that SBS is the leading cause of death
in children under two years of age, and research studies in the United Kingdom
and the United States indicate that SBS may occur each year as many as 24 to 30
per 100,000 children under two years of age (Smith, 2010).
In cases of
asphyxiation, a pathologist will look for indicators of how the body was
deprived of oxygen. Several common means include strangulation, suffocation,
smoke inhalation, or drowning. For strangulation, the pathologist will look for
bruising around the neck inflicted by choking hands or by a ligature. A
ligature is any item, such as a rope or a belt, which could be used to restrict
breathing and stop oxygenated blood going to the brain, thus causing death. If
a ligature has been used and removed, it will leave a distinct abrasion line.
If a dead body is found with a ligature in place, investigators should take
great care to not untie the ligature, but cut it off of the victim, as this
allows the ligature size to be measured and compared to the size of the neck to
determine the amount of breathing that was restricted. Once the ligature is
removed from a dead body, a distinct ligature mark or a groove in the flesh
will sometimes be visible[18].
To
determine strangulation, the pathologist will examine the eyes of the victim
for the presence of small ruptured blood vessels that appear as red spots on
the white of the eyeball. These spots are known as a petechial haemorrhage, and
will often be visible in victims of strangulation (Jaffe, 1994).
Suffocation
as a cause of asphyxiation occurs when a victim’s breathing is stopped by an
object, such as a pillow or a plastic bag, which restricts the ability of a
victim to breathe, thus causing death. Unlike strangulation, suffocation has
fewer indicators of violent trauma. Suffocation deaths are sometimes accidental
and are harder for pathologist to conclusively determine. The presence of a
suffocation device at the scene of the death is sometimes a first clue to this
cause. Other contributing causes can be the limited ability of a victim to
remove the device that accidentally obstructs their breathing, as may be found
with a very young child, a handicapped person, or a frail elderly victim.
Another
unique type of asphyxiation death is Auto Erotic Asphyxia (AEA). This occurs
when a person is attempting to enhance their sexual arousal or pleasure while
masturbating and apply self-strangulation with a ligature device. Their goal in
AEA is not suicide but rather to reach a state of extreme oxygen deprivation
and euphoria at the time of orgasm. This strategy can go wrong when the
individual passes out and their ligature does not release causing continued
strangulation and death. These cases can resemble suicide; however, they are
really death by misadventure because the victim had no intent to kill
themselves. AEA can sometimes be distinguished from suicide by the existence of
apparent masturbation, pornography at the scene, and ligature devices that have
releasable controls.
In cases
where asphyxiation is caused by smoke inhalation, a pathologist can find signs
of soot blackening in the lungs and, if the air containing the smoke was
sufficiently hot, the lungs will also show signs of burn trauma. Because arson
is sometimes used as a means of disguising a homicide, finding a dead body in a
burning building, and not finding signs of smoke in the lungs, is a red flag
for possible death by homicide.
In cases
where asphyxiation is caused by drowning, a pathologist will find signs of
water present in the lungs. If there is a question as to the location of the
drowning, it is possible to have a diatom test conducted on the victim’s
tissue. If the victim was drowned in fresh water, the diatom material, which is
microscopic algae, will have migrated from the water in the lungs to the blood
and tissue of the victim. These microscopic algae are species unique to a
particular body of water. Diatom material found in a victim’s lungs should
match the diatom sample from the water where the body was found. If it does not
match, this suggests that the victim drowned elsewhere.
In cases of
toxic substances, a pathologist will test the stomach contents, the blood, eye
fluid known as vitreous humor, and tissue samples from various organs in the
body for poisons, drug overdose, the ingestion of toxic chemicals, or toxic gas
inhalation. Any of these substances can cause death if ingested or inhaled in
sufficient quantities.
In cases of
electrocution, a person dies because of an electrical current passing through
their body that stops the heart. A pathologist will look for signs to confirm
that a current passed through the body, including contact burns where a person
has touched a source of power that entered their body and existed to a
grounding point. This grounding point is often at the ground through the feet,
but can be through a shorter contact pathway, if another hand or part of the
body was in contact with a grounded object. Burns will also be visible where
the electrical current exited the body.
Cases where
the necessities of life have been deprived generally occur where there is a
dependent relationship between a caregiver and a victim. The victims in these
cases are typically very young or very elderly persons who are unable to take
care of their own needs. These cases often take place over and extended periods
of time and may include other types of physical neglect or abuse. Failing to
provide necessities of life is such a significant issue that the Criminal law
in Canada makes provision for this as an offence.
Duty of
persons to provide necessaries:
1. Everyone is
under a legal duty
a) As a
parent, foster parent, guardian or head of a family, to provide necessaries of
life for a child under the age of sixteen years;
b) To provide
necessaries of life to their spouse or common-law partner; and
c) To provide
necessaries of life to a person under his charge if that person
i.
is unable, by reason of detention, age, illness,
mental disorder or other cause, to withdraw himself from that charge, and
ii.
is unable to provide himself with necessaries of life.
MARGINAL NOTE: OFFENCE
2. Every one
commits an offence who, being under a legal duty within the meaning of
subsection (1), fails without lawful excuse, the proof of which lies on him, to
perform that duty, if
a) With
respect to a duty imposed by paragraph (1)(a) or (b),
i.
The person to whom the duty is owed is in destitute or
necessitous circumstances, or
ii.
The failure to perform the duty endangers the life of
the person to whom the duty is owed, or causes or is likely to cause the health
of that person to be endangered permanently; or
b) With
respect to a duty imposed by paragraph (1)(c), the failure to perform the duty
endangers the life of the person to whom the duty is owed or causes or is
likely to cause the health of that person to be injured permanently. (Justice
Laws Canada, 2017)
MARGINAL NOTE: PUNISHMENT
3. Everyone
who commits an offence under subsection (2)
a) is guilty
of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding
five years; or
b) is guilty
of an offence punishable on summary conviction and liable to imprisonment for a
term not exceeding eighteen months. (Justice Laws Canada, 2017)
If the
death of a person is found to be the result of failing to provide the
necessities of life, the responsible caregiver can ultimately be charged with
criminal negligence causing death.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
There are a
wide range of chemicals and usages that can be used in the commission of a
crime or found at the scene of a crime. In addition to general chemical
analysis, there are several sub-areas for analysis in cases of:
·
Accelerants used in the crime of arson;
·
Explosive analysis in cases of conventional crimes and
terrorism;
·
Toxic chemicals and biological agents used in cases of
murder, industrial negligence, and terrorism;
·
Drug analysis in the cases of trafficking and drug
overdoses;
·
Gunshot residue analysis; and
·
Analysis and chemical matching of paint transfer in
cases of hit-and-run motor vehicle crashes.
FORENSIC ARCHAEOLOGY
Relatively
new in the forensic world, forensic archaeology is the use of archaeological
methods by experts to exhume crime scenes, including bodies. These forensic
experts are trained to methodically excavate and record their dig. They
document the recovery of artifacts (evidence), such as human remains, weapons,
and other buried items, that may be relevant to the criminal event. Forensic
archaeologists will often work in concert with other forensic experts in DNA,
physical matching, forensic entomology, and forensic odontology in the
examination of evidence[19].
FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY
Forensic
entomology is a very narrow field of forensic science that focuses on the life
cycle of bugs. When a dead body has been left out in the elements and allowed
to decompose, the investigative challenge is not only to identify the body, but
to establish the time of death. Once a body has decomposed, the process of
determining time of death can be aided by a forensic entomologist. As discussed
in a previous chapter, these experts look at the bugs that live on a
decomposing body through the various stages of their life cycle. From these
life-cycle calculations, scientists are sometimes able to offer and estimate
relative time of death.
FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
To
paraphrase the description provided by Dr. Leung (2008), forensic odontology is
essentially forensic dentistry and includes the expert analysis of various
aspects of teeth for the purposes of investigation. Since the advent of dental
x-rays, dental records have been used as a reliable source of comparison data
to confirm the identity of bodies that were otherwise too damaged or too
decomposed to identify through other means. The development of DNA and the
ability to use DNA in the identification of badly decomposed human remains has
made identity through dental records less critical. That said, even in a badly
decomposed or damaged corpse, teeth can retain DNA material inside the tooth,
allowing it to remain a viable source of post-mortem DNA evidence (Gaytmenn,
2003).
Beyond the
identification of dead bodies, forensic odontology can sometimes also provide
investigators with assistance in confirming the possible identity of a suspect
responsible for a bite mark. This comparison is done by the examination and
photographic preservation of the bite mark on a victim or an object, and the
subsequent matching of the details in that bite mark configuration to a dental
mould showing the bite configuration of a known suspect’s teeth. Although bite
mark comparison has been in practice for over fifty years there remain
questions to the reliability for exact matching of an unknown bite mark to a
suspect.
FORENSIC ENGINEERING
Forensic
engineering is a type of investigative engineering that examines materials, structures,
and mechanical devices to answer a wide range of questions. Often used in cases
of car crashes, forensic engineers can often estimate the speed of a vehicle by
examining the extent of damage to a vehicle. They can also match damage between
vehicles and road surfaces to determine the point of impact and speed at the
time of impact. Many police agencies now have specialized traffic personnel
trained in accident analysis and accident reconstruction. These officers
utilize a variety of forensic engineering techniques to examine and document
the dynamics of car crashes to establish how and why a crash occurred.
In cases of
building collapses, forensic engineers can conduct analyses to determine the
cause of a structural failure and, in the case of an intentional explosion,
such as in acts of terrorism, this can point to the location of the planted
explosive device. The investigative possibilities for forensic engineering are
too extensive to elaborate here, but if damage to a building, an object, or a piece
of equipment poses an investigative question, the tools of forensic engineering
should be used to seek answers.
CRIMINAL PROFILING
Criminal
profiling, also referred to as psychological profiling, is the study of
criminal conduct to develop the most likely social and psychological profile of
the person who may have committed the crime based on the actions of known
criminals who have committed that same type of crime in the past (Royal
Canadian Mounted Police, 2015). Criminal profiling draws on information from
many sources, including historical criminal statistics of known criminals.
Additionally, other information is collected about violent criminals and their
modus operandi. This kind of information can shed light on details, such as
preferences for luring victims, taking trophies, abduction methods, bondage
preference, torture methods, means of killing, and displaying a dead body after
death. With information and specific data collected from a wide assortment of
offenders, psychological profilers work with investigators to examine the
details of a criminal investigation, and, based upon the known historical
criminal conduct data, they determine probable descriptors and characteristics
that might be expected in a current suspect’s profile[20].
For investigators,
this kind of profiling can be helpful in focusing the investigation on the most
likely persons. As an extension of these profiling techniques, a database known
as Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System (ViCLAS) has been in place in Canada
since the 1990s. This system documents the criminal conduct of convicted
violent offenders and sex offenders, as well as certain unsolved cases, with a
goal of documenting crime types and criminal conduct into a searchable database
where unsolved crimes can be linked to offenders with matching profiles.
According to the ViCLAS system web page, “Since the implementation of villas
across the country, the database continues to swell with cases. As of April
2007, there were approximately 300,000 cases on the system and over 3,200
linkages have been made thus far” (Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 2015).
Criminal profiling provides a valuable tool for sorting and prioritizing
suspects identified for further investigation. In some cases, a new suspect may
even be identified through the existing data within the ViCLAS database.
GEOGRAPHIC PROFILING
Geographic
profiling is similar to psychological profiling in that it seeks to focus on
the possible conduct of an unknown criminal based on the data collected from
the known past criminal conduct of others. Unlike psychological profiling,
geographic profiling is focused specifically on where a suspect might reside
relative to the location where his or her crimes are currently being committed.
In the late
1980’s, police Detective Inspector Kim Rossmo developed a mathematical formula
that began the evolution in the new forensic science of geographic profiling.
Dr. Rossmo validated his mathematical formula from his observation that
criminals generally seemed to live within identifiable proximity to the chosen
locations where they committed their crimes (Rossmo, 1987). Applying this
method, when a criminal is suspected of committing a series of offences, it is
possible to have the locations of those offences examined by a geographic profiler
to estimate where that suspect most likely resides. This assessment can be
helpful in searching for and identifying new suspects by prioritizing suspects
based on the location of their residence relative to the identified area with
the highest probability for a suspect to be found[21].
FORENSIC DATA ANALYSIS
In today’s
digital world, criminal conduct frequently includes evidence in the form of
digital data. The collection of data from cellular phones as proof of a
criminal conspiracy, or the message tracking of images passed in the
distribution of child pornography, all require significant levels of
specialized technological knowledge to collect, preserve, and analyze the
exhibits. Some crimes, such as identity theft and the subsequent fraudulent misappropriation
of funds, are almost entirely digital data crimes, and they cross over several
fields of technological expertise. It is now incumbent upon ordinary
investigators to understand the basics of how to preserve digital evidence, and
to know when and if digital evidence may be present. An ordinary investigator
without forensic data skills and qualifications should never attempt to recover
digital data evidence without help. The destruction of evidence would be like
an untrained investigator trying to lift fingerprints at a crime scene.
FORENSIC DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
Forensic
document analysis is typically done by certified forensic document examiners
working as independent contractors or as employees within the service of
government funded crime detection laboratories. Most often tasked within the
scope of fraud investigations, these specialists examine items, such as wills,
land titles, contracts, deeds, seals, stamps, bank checks, identification
cards, handwritten documents and documents from photocopiers, fax machines, and
printers. These documents are often examined to authenticate them as genuine or
unaltered original documents where an allegation of misrepresentation or fraud
has been made. Original signatures are also sometimes called into question, and
these examiners can make a determination of authenticity by comparing the
signature sample to samples known to be genuine. Forensic experts are also
called upon to analyze threatening letters, ransom letters, or hold-up notes to
make a connection to an identified suspect.
FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION SECTIONS
Forensic
identification sections are the frontline forensic specialists typically
working within their own police agency. Usually, these specialists are
experienced police officers who have taken forensic training in photography,
fingerprint examination, physical matching, evidence collection, and crime
scene management to work within this type of section. The daily work of
forensic identification sections involves attending crime scenes, and conducting
a variety of examinations using special fingerprint dusts, chemical fuming
agents, and ultraviolet light sources to uncover impressions of fingerprint,
shoeprints, tool marks or even body fluid stains not visible to the naked eye.
Once the stain or the image of a forensic impression is found, these
specialists can record, preserve, and recover the exhibit using photography and
specialized tools for lifting the exhibit from a surface or removing the entire
imprinted surface as an exhibit[22].
CRIME DETECTION LABORATORIES
Crime
Detection Laboratories, such as the RCMP labs across Canada, provide a range of
specialties, including;
·
Biology -
Comparison of the suspect’s and victim’s body fluids and hair; most often DNA
analysis
·
Chemistry -
Identifying non-biological substances found at a crime scene, such as paint,
glass, liquids, fuels, and explosive substances
·
Toxicology
- The examination of body fluids to determine the level of alcohol present
in the body, and providing expert opinions in relation to the extent of
intoxication
·
Documents
Examination - the analysis of documents to determine authenticity for
fraud allegations. Can also provide handwriting comparison
·
Firearms
Ballistics - Matching shells, casing, and fired bullets to a weapon and
deciding on bullet trajectory
·
TOOL MARK
EXAMINATION - Matching tool impressions to an originating suspect tool
Scientists
hired to work in these crime detection laboratories require a four-year
specialized degree in the field of their choice. Once hired, they undergo an
understudy period of 12 to 18 months in a laboratory with the expectation that
they will become proficient enough in their chosen field to achieve expert
qualification from the court. This expert status will allow them, on a
case-by-case basis, to render expert opinion evidence on their examination of
forensic exhibits.
For an
investigator wishing to engage the services of the Crime Detection Laboratory,
it is necessary to complete a request for analysis of the exhibit they wish to
have examined and deliver that exhibit, either in person or by
double-registered mail, directly to the Crime Detection Laboratory to ensure
continuity of the exhibit. Once examined, the analyst will return the exhibit
again either by calling for a personal pick up or by double registered mail
along with a certificate of analysis detailing the result of the examination.
The certificate of analysis can become an exhibit for disclosure to the defence
in a criminal case, and, if uncontested, will be accepted by the court as evidence.
If contested, the Crime Detection Laboratory Scientist will be called to attend
court and provide testimony of the examination and the results as an expert
witness. They are generally cross-examined by the defence to validate their
expert qualifications and analyses.
This
chapter outlined a wide variety of forensic tools and services available for
criminal investigators. For any investigator, knowledge of forensic tools and
services provides him/her with the ability to recognize and seize on evidence opportunities
that would not otherwise be possible. The picture of physical evidence found at
any crime scene only has face value as a collection of objects to be viewed and
considered in their existing connection to the event. Analysis of those same
objects using forensic tools can add significant information, making a
circumstantial connection between the players and the event, and adding new
insights. Forensic analysis can make the difference between solving a crime and
it becoming a cold case.
Various types
of physical evidence can be found at almost any crime scene. The types of
evidence and where it is found can assist investigators to develop a sense of
how the crime was committed. Tool marks where a door was forced open can
indicate a point of entry, shoe prints can show a path of travel, and blood
stains can indicate an area where conflict occurred. Each of these pieces of
physical evidence is a valuable exhibit capable of providing general
information about spatial relationships between objects, people, and events. In
addition, the application of forensic examination and analysis could turn any
of these exhibits into a potential means of solving the crime.
CONCLUSION
Forensic science is in a unique position among all other scientific
fields because of its important social impact. Indeed, forensic science is at
the interface of natural sciences and law implications in civil and criminal
cases. Numerous analytical methods borrowed from chemistry and physics, such as
various spectroscopic techniques and electrochemistry, have received tremendous applications in subareas
of forensic science.
Portable Raman and infrared (IR) spectrometers,
electrochemical sensors and biosensors, and single-use paper-strip
bioanalytical assays continue to become more affordable and accessible to crime
investigations. Biomolecular analytical methods, including DNA analysis, proteomics, metabolomics, biomolecular computing, and in vivo imaging, have high
importance in forensic
science, but their use is not the same as in medicine,
thus requiring special
adaptation to the needs of forensic science. Analysis of various biomarkers found in biofluids at a crime
scene, particularly based on immunoassay and multienzyme biocatalytic
reactions, is progressing toward practical applications.
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Article Information
IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES CONCERNING MODERN TECHNIQUES IN CONDUCTING THE CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS BY: PROF.(DR.) S. JAMES & RENUBALA WAHENGBAM
Authors: PROF. DR. S. JAMES, RENUBALA WAHENGBAM
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/02/14
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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