Open Access Research Article
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION AROUND WORLD AND HUMAN RIGHTS CONCERNS
Published Paper
Article Details
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION AROUND
WORLD AND HUMAN RIGHTS CONCERNS
AUTHORED BY - AKSHARA P KAMATH
ABSTRACT
In the
matter of religion and, most notably, traditions, humans always take total
responsibility for things done! From a closer viewpoint, various shades of
ancient traditions, deeply rooted in our culture and in the minds of people,
can be described. Genital
Mutilation (FGM), a really well-kept secret, that recently attracted a
wide attention in India when many females from the DawoodiBohra group came hand
in hand to initiate a virtual movement by petitioning against such kinds
of religious practise and requesting the Prime Minister personally to
interfere and rule it unconstitutional. It was not the first time,
nevertheless, that FGM worldwide was brought in front of people and
media. Previously in Somalia, supermodel Waris Dirie who'd been
once a survivor of FGM, have spoken out against the rising percentage in
African countries of this excruciatingly painful practise and labelled it total
abuse towards innocent children. By establishing the Desert Flower Foundation
in 2002, Sheeven took initiative to initiate a campaign against this. It has
currently been calculated that almost 200 million women and girls already
endured genital mutilation in around 30 countries worldwide[1].
In different cultures in Africa, Mid-East, and Asia the, it is mainly practised
as an ancient custom. With the large spike in the amount of refugees, the
practise of FGM is rapidly increasing in nations
like Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand.[2]
The study aims
to examine the most destructive practise faced by modern women in certain areas
of the world in this context. Despite global attempts to eliminate female
genital mutilation, 4 million girls[3]
are exposed to this barbaric practise annually. An effort was made in this
report to explain the prevalence and practice of FGM globally and its
negative impacts on the physical health of individuals. The study further
examines the Indian and global stand on Female Genital Mutilation as well as
the Human Rights concerns related to FGM.The study also derives various suggestions by
focusing on the lacunae of the issue.
Keywords:
Female Genital Mutilation, Dawoodi, Bohra Human Rights, Religious Practice,
Health implications, women, Foundation.
INTRODUCTION
What is female genital mutilation?
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a
practice that is practiced in young girls and women where their external
genital areas or organs are modified, removed or operated[4].
The process is executed by a religious leader, town chief, or a medical
practitioner with minimal experience with the help of a blade or broken piece
of glass.[5] In
around 15 per cent of cases, infibulation, the most extreme type of FGM,
includes removing the labia and amputating the vulva together; this procedure
can even jeopardize the life of the victim[6].
The operation, unlike male genital mutilation, provides no established health
benefits and is not conducted for medical reasons. FGM is generally known as a
practice that breaches the human rights of an individual and raises health
risks.[7]
Background
The background or origin of FGM is
uncertain. In some cultures, FGM is performed as a religious obligation,
evidence indicates that FGM dates back Islam and Catholicism[8].
In the 5th century BC, some historians traced the custom from Egypt and contend
that the regional spread of FGM indicates that it began mostly on western
shores of the Red Sea.[9]
Egyptian mummies reveal infibulated
women also in the British Museum a Greek papyrus dated back in 163BC supports
the same. In the 2nd century BC, a Greek historian and geographer recorded that
a community which resided on the east shores of the Red Sea used to
practice genital mutilation in their own wives in "Egyptian style"
and some other community also used to practice genital mutilation on infant girls” cut
off the whole portion in infancy with razors that others circumcise." [10]Oddly,
today FGM is attributed to in Sudan namely as "Pharaonic
circumcisions" (which means Egyptian), and in Egypt it is known as or
said to as "Sudanese circumcision."[11]
There definitely does seem to be a
connection among FGM and enslavement. Certain anthropologists claim that
African herders near the equator have practiced FGM to shield
female shepherds from rape, or "an essential component of human
sacrificial rituals, or some initial effort at birth control."[12]
Currently, FGM is a strengthened
phenomenon that exists in “African Sudanic Belt”. The practice is distributed
through large communities, and it is speculated that perhaps the custom might
just have evolved between diverse communities separately.[13]
According to the statistics
recorded by UNICEF over 200 million women and even young girls were
subject to genital mutilation in about 30 nations all around the
globe. It is performed primarily as ancient tradition in different African, Asian,
and Middle East cultures. Furthermore, with the massive rise of refugees, FGM
has become an escalating trend of Europe and many other countries
like Australia, New Zealand and North America.[14]
Reasons behind FGM
It is clear that FGM / C is largely
widespread in African and Middle Eastern countries, where a number of
females have endured this practice, as per several United Nations
records[15].
It can also be seen in some Asian and Latin American nations. Of
the 29 nations in Africa and the Middle East, 26 have enacted laws to abolish
this drastic and illegitimate tradition[16].
Surprisingly, India is among the countries that follows this practice. Later
on, the Indian Stand on this problem will be discussed.
While many still try to explain this
purposeless practice, this ritual has been deemed premeditated, lethal and an
incredibly insane 'custom' by many organizations.[17]The
same was shown by several studies that prove that FGM / C has no benefits
whatsoever. [18]Why is
this awful tradition still in place, then?
FGM / C is primarily practised for
sociocultural purposes, as per WHO. In order to be acceptable, FGM / C is a
systemic phenomenon where people feel the need to adhere to certain social
standards, which is the essential underlying explanation for the continuum of
this phenomenon. The normalisation of traditional violence towards women, where
girls and women are supposed to be raised up in a certain way, is fuelled by
this practise. The societal values of what corresponds to womanhood and modesty
are related to it. Even that tradition is not mentioned in any of religious
manuscripts, similar to other cultural abuse. The adherents and the
representatives of faith, however, believe and spread that faith is behind this
atrocity. It is actually people's mythologies that lack the comprehension and
knowledge of the implications of this crime. Social acceptance, religious
faith, misapprehensions concerning sanitation, i.e. to preserve the
chastity of a single woman, which makes the woman
"marriageable" as well as to enhance male physical desire are by far
the most widely mentioned factors practicing out FGM.For certain
communities, FGM is deemed a prerequisite towards puberty, as well as a
condition for wedding. It is even practiced in order
to suppress the sexual impulses of a woman and to discourage
promiscuity.[19]
METHODOLOGY
The researcher used the method of
doctrinal research for this particular paper. Secondary data were obtained
through multiple online and written sources, such as academic papers,
documents, books, news reports, and other materials with the help of Legal Databases.
The 1973 Bare Act of the Code of Criminal Procedure used to gain guidance on
the process to be followed when pursuing jury trials in multiple types of
criminal cases. Data that is collected from the multiple secondary data
sources were analysed and recorded with a view to drawing a reliable
hypothesis on the subject and providing further recommendations if necessary.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the Reason behind the custom
of Female Genital Mutilation?
2. Whether FGM can be justified as a
religious practice or not?
3. What are the Human Rights Concerns
regarding FGM?
4. What is the International and Indian
Stand on FGM?
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
·
To
obtain a detailed understanding of important aspects of Female Genital
Mutilation domestically with the help of case laws and Internationally with the
help of provisions.
·
To
analyse Human Rights concerns related to FGM
·
To
analyse whether FGM can be justified as a religious practice or not?
·
To
evaluate and analyse whether any further changes are to be made in the
provisions related to FGM.
·
To
derive various suggestions by focusing on the lacunae of the issue.
DISCUSSION
Types of Genital Mutilations
In 1997, WHO categorized the female circumcision
into 4 distinct forms. P. Severity and risk factor are directly linked to
the form of FGM being done and the extent of tissue being cut.[20]
The four main FGM forms, are:
Type 1. Partial or absolute amputation
of Clitoris.
Type 2. It includes partial or absolute
elimination of clitoris and one of the labia or both.
Type 3. This type is known as namely
Infibulation which involves narrowing of the opening vagina by forming a
sealing membrane. The sealing is created by removing and realigning the labia,
inside or outside, with or without elimination the amputation of
clitoris.
Type 4. Include all dangerous
practices for non-medical uses of female genitalia, such as twitching,
scratching, cauterization, grinding, and debridement.
It is found that over 90 percent of
victims are subjected to type 1, type 2, and only 10 percent of victims of FGM
are subjected were considered to be of type 3. The United Nations listed
the removal of every means of Female Genital Mutilation as goal within aim 5 on
gender equality in the Sustainable Goals of 2030. The
"International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital
Mutilation" is celebrated every year on 6 of February. Under
this topic the researching will be covering different types of FGM practiced by
many ethnicities and how they are classified officials. This topic will also
talk about the consequences and health risks of the specified practices.[21]
INDIAN STATUS ON FEMALE GENITAL
MUTILATION
We are always fooled into believing
that such a senseless activity is performed among tribal people in far-off
countries like Africa. But the disturbing fact is that this horrific procedure
takes place in the heart of India, Mumbai, where this procedure is continued by
inexperienced midwives, bruising the Dawoodi Bohra community's young bodies and
minds, a Shia sub group of Islam, they came to India back in the 12th
century from Yemen. The populace of this group (Dawoodi Bohras) is
reported to be 1,117,200(approx.) globally; they were primarily concentrated in
3 nations, including India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, comprising total census of
1,113,000. When it comes to India they are mostly concentrated in the
western namely Gujarat with a population
of (694000), Maharashtra with a population of 270000,
and Madhya Pradesh with a population of 127000.[22]
Even today, the Bohra community is
illicitly carrying out one of the darkest secrets,' Khatna' as called by
the Bohra community, or FGM/C. In the context of custom, India has been one of
the several countries that have exposed women and children to violence since
historical ages. The Bohra girls are also the victims of one such custom, a
ritual not found in the holy books anywhere. Those who do this unwaveringly,
fail to grasp the distinction between the socially destructive do have an
otherwise liberal community.
The Bohra group is distributed across
Pakistan, Yemen, East Africa, and areas of America and Australia[23].
Unfortunately, because of the legal actions taken against the practise in
Australia and the US, India is becoming a centre for FGM / C. India still
struggles, nevertheless, to acknowledge and resolve the nature of this
activity. In 2017, for example, the WCD ministry led by Ms. Maneka Gandhi
refuted the presence of FGM / C by arguing that no meaningful data existed. Thus,
no clear laws towards FGM / C are available.
Provisions
That being said, provisions such as
Sections 319 to 326 of the Indian Penal Code 1860[vii] and Section 3 of the s
Protection of Children from Sexual Offence Act, 2012[viii], still are effective.
In addition, to speak of precedents, it has been known in the past that
'penetration' may not always have to mean maximum penetration in sexual crimes.
In Explanation 1 of Sec 375 of the Indian Penal Code, the word 'vagina'
contains labia majora. Within Section 3 of the POCSO Act, read in Explanation 1
of Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code[ix], FGM / C may be covered. But,
unconstrained and unregulated, the practice persists.
Furthermore, Article 15 of the Indian
Constitution calls for the defence of individuals against discrimination on the
grounds of sex, caste, race, place of origin and faith. This Article is
breached by FGM / C as it advocates systematic abuse towards girls and women of
a specific religious group. Senior lawyer Abhishek Manu Singhvi,
defending the Dawoodi Bohra Women for Religious Freedom, has argued in a latest
plea[24]
submitted in July 2018 to ban FGM / C that the ritual is an integral part of
the faith and is covered in Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution of India
1950. That being said, the supreme court has ruled that it is
breaching Article 21 of the Constitution because it brings the female
subject to the torment of female genital mutilation. A bench comprising of
Chief Justice Dipak Misra, Justice AM Khanwilkar and Justice DY Chandrachud
agreed on the same.
Dawood Bohra community performs this
practice as a part of their religious rite in India. Bohra community are a
group of Shias Muslims, who moved over the 12th century from Yemen to
India. They are majorly settled in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Maharashtra. Gujarat is the state which dominates in the population.
In the case of Sunita Tiwari v.
Union of India[25] in which a PIL
was filed by Sunita Tiwari demanding a ban on FGM. The Supreme Court
ruled in November 2019 that the FGM dispute should be assigned to a bigger
seven-judge panel, and therefore should be discussed amongst other women rights
cases. The court found that FGM was a societal concern and therefore not a
religious question.
There certain provisions in
the Indian Penal Code,1860 which deals with numerous forms of
violence against women. IPC Section 319 to 326 PC addresses harm
and egregious hurt different levels. As per WHO, the acute risk of FGM / C may
include severe haemorrhage, inflammation of genital tissue, tissue repair
complications, genital damage, the long-term effects of tissue, trauma and
demise entail, urinary complications, genital troubles, menstrual issues,
sexual issues, etc. and hence individuals performing FGM / C can be charged
pursuant to IPC.[26]
In specific, IPC Sections 324
and 326 include detention and penalty provisions for "voluntarily causing
harm" and "voluntarily causing grievous hurt". R.K Raghavan who
was the Past Director CBI stated that while FGM / C is not specifically an
offense as per the IPC, authorities are allowed to sign a complaint within IPC
section 326 on a report.
Section 3 of the POCSO Act, 2012
addresses, penetrative sexual assault on any child. There is proven precedent
that penetration should not be full penetration in sexual crimes. In addition,
Section 375 Explanation 1 IPC unequivocally specifies that labia majora
involves the word vagina. FGM, which necessitates a sharp instrument to be
inserted into a child's vagina, may be addressed by Section 3, POCSO Act
perused with elaboration 1 of section 375 IPC.[27]
Under Section 2(y)(i) of "the
Goa Children's Act, 2003 (GC Act)", 'sexual abuse' is described as "various
forms of intercourse; vaginal or oral or anal, use of objects with children;'
and 'deliberately causing harm to children's sexual organs”. FGM could be
punished as per either of these clauses, while considering to the facts
and background.
The National Children's Policy, 2013
(NPC) acknowledges and prioritizes the right of the child to health, security,
growth as absolute rights. This contributes to providing protection for
children from all types of crime, bullying, abuse and prejudice, or any
behaviour that is damaging their personality or impeding their growth.[28]
The globally funded Integrated Child
Protection Scheme (ICPS), which was initiated by the Ministry of Women and
Child Development in 2009, intends towards promoting and building an effective structure
for the protection of exposed kids.
Under this topic the research will
cover the Indian perspective on FGM with the help of case laws and the
suggestions regarding the same.
WHETHER FGM CAN BE DEFENSIBLE AS A
RELIGIOUS RITUAL?
In several cases, the
tradition of FGM has frequently been related to a custom reflecting the advent
of puberty as well as the acceptance of women.[29]
In a survey performed amongst people in the Bohra community[30] it
was observed that spiritual standards, culture, convention and the urge to
suppress the modesty of a girl Child.
The constitution of India grants, the
constitutional right to freedom of religion as well as the right to handle
religious practices, which is set out in the Articles 25[31]
and 26. The human right to liberty of faith is set out in article 25. In this
sub-topic the researcher will answer the question and will give a conclusion as
a final note with the help of some Landmark Judgements in India.
Female genital mutilation is a
practiced to suppress the sexual impulses of young women and contributes to
adverse health consequences. Females are seen as subjects of sensual
impulses are required to be curtailed. This practice is unlawful
because women and girls are stereotyped by sexuality and thereby
breaching their fundamental rights in compliance with Articles 14 and 15.
Such a practice victimizes women in the robes of faith and the
object of protection for women and breaches their right to physical autonomy,
to regulate their individual bodies and to be shielded from abuse and emotional
distress, therefore violating the right to life provided by Article 21 of the Indian
constitution. The bigotry of gender is counter to the ideals of parity as
protected by the Indian Constitution.
In Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association [32],
the Supreme Court in the matter of Punjab Excise Act Section 30, that barred
the recruitment of every male under twenty - five years of age as well as
any female in every sector of an institution wherein alcohol or any other
alluring drug is eaten, dismissed the conventional claims of gender related matter
wherein the excuse of protection of women was asserted. The Court noted that:
The impugned statute, in the account of defence, ends up victimising
its subject matter. So in this context, the intervention imposed by the
Government for the purposes of security ought to be adequate to the legitimate
objectives. Gender parity is widely regarded today in
the European Court as among the main concepts guiding the Convention and
an aim to be accomplished by the Council of Europe's Member States.[33]
It is up to the Court to analyse whether the majority of pacifist
tendencies are embedded in moralism. This is the context of closer judicial
oversight of certain laws worldwide. Thus, one problem of imminent significance
in such instances is the influence of conventional societal beliefs as well as
the situation of the overall atmosphere in society that women have to face when
selecting for jobs that is otherwise totally harmless to the male equivalent. In
that case, the Supreme Court ruled that it is the duty of the Court to
decide if the initiatives put forward by the government in the form of an
edict for the purpose of enhancing the legitimate role of defending the
rights of women were proportionate to the other majority of well-established
social norms, like sovereignty, equal opportunities, privacy rights. In this
regard, the fact of the matter will be a working liberal free democracy that
guarantees liberty to seek different possibilities avoiding discrimination pertaining
the context of sex, race, caste or indeed any similar grounds. Within Article
26[34] right
to freedom of religion to administer one's spiritual institutions is assured.
Such liberty is, nevertheless, still liable to maintain law and order, ethics
and health.
In the matter of Sri Adi
Visheshwara of Kashi Vishwanath Temple v. State of UP[35],,
the court ruled that: The purpose of the law is to eradicate social problems and
inequalities for the sake of social harmony, order, prosperity and development
in an equitable society. Untouchability, for example, was thought to be aspect
of Hindu religious ideology. But it is condemned by human and civil rights and
prohibited by Article 17 of the Indian Constitution and its existence in just
about any usage is an offence unlawful underneath the Civil Rights
Protection Act. The object of Article 17 is accomplished by Article 15(2)
as well as other associated regulations.
FGM practise is liable to
constitutional ethics, irrespective of whether or not it is a religious
tradition of the Bohra community, and the Bohra community must adhere to
the constitutional principles of equality and freedom from discrimination. In
accordance with Article 26, certain activity would not be covered. gender justice
i.e., prohibition of discrimination, is fragment of India's
constitutional morality. As pointed out previously, to the degree that it runs
contrary to gender equity, the practise of FGM is unconstitutional of Articles
14 and 15. It also violates the Indian Constitution's Articles 25 and 26 as it
starkly contrasts to moral law.
INTERNATIONAL STATUS ON FGM
FGM / C is
widespread across all continents, as described above, and is not limited to
Africa alone. Nevertheless, numerous nations are coming up with successful laws
to resolve this problem of international importance. Although several countries
do not have clear laws prohibiting this tradition, in the same case, punitive
provisions which apply. For example, India has no clear legislation, nor has it
outlawed the FGM / C activity, but it is known as a criminal offence and child
molestation, and offender can be punished to a max of seven years.
Although there are still no laws in several countries in Africa to regulate
this tradition, some have enacted clear laws to abolish FGM / C. A few of the
countries in Africa like Cameroon, Congo, Guinea Bissau really have no clear
legislation to deal with FGM / C are, but the penal provisions are acceptable.
Australia, the United States of America and Sudan have effectively banned
this practise.[36]
Kenya has
made this practice illegal with a maximum of 3 years’
detention with or without a penalty of $2000 USD, by passing the law,
Prohibition of FGM Act, 2011. The practice of FGM has
witnessed a steady decline since the enactment of these laws in 2011. Even so,
in mitigating this practise along the borders, Kenya still stands
ineffective. Although the law bans cross-border FGM, Kenyan laws are
impotent to guarantee that this 'custom' is fully eradicated.[37]
In
countries such as Mauritania and Liberia, although FGM has been made illegal,
the penalties are only for victims under 18 years of age, thus making the
legislation obsolete. In addition, for these crimes, there are no clear rules
and penalties. On a case-to - case basis, the sentences are determined. These
were some of the descriptions of the law's status around the world with
pertaining to FGM / C.
Human Rights Violation
Female genital mutilation (FGM)
is globally viewed as a serious breach of girls' and women's human rights.
Similarly, many famous scholars have talked about the breach of human rights by
FGM. For instance, Efua Dorkenoo[38]
believed that FGM was an absolute representation of discrimination
and Violation of Human Rights with the intent to control the identity
and equality of women. [39]
Right to Health
Global human rights law and "
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) " states
that it’s the right of an individual who is living in this world to live
in an environment which allows them to enjoy good health and medical-upkeep
amenities. Complications related to the FGM operation results
in harsh long-term health implications for women. All forms of FGC have
technique associated safety complication as it is implemented by
non-professionals without healthcare amenities employing unhygienic
tools.
Right of a child
The victims of FGM varies from babies
to young girls to adults. United States of America, Ethiopia has also claimed
that FGM breaches the Child rights since they are commonly practiced on girls
at an age of 17 or below. FGM contravenes Article 3 of "The United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child".[40]
Right to Sexual and Physical
Integrity
FGM is practised without explicit
consent of children and women. An unwanted intrusion of the body of an
individual constitutes violation of the fundamental right. The reason behind
the custom of FGM is that the society deems femininity to be rather
hazardous and must be regulated. Women who were subjected to
infibulation endure traumatic intimacy throughout their lives,
and hence there is no sexual fulfilment including the instances where
there would be no pain.[41]
whatever the motive for their
operation, FGM is a Common adverse activity in contravention of the rights and
integrity of Women and children, wellbeing and lifetime rights (in the case of
Practice leads to death), gender, and personal rights.[42]
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The present analysis indicates that
the custom of FGM remains widespread in some nations, whilst rules prohibiting
FGM prevail. During the last decade the removal of FGM has rendered no
progress. Perhaps this is attributable to the reality that developing countries
are having trouble recognizing the social and spiritual complexities of FGM
practiced by cultures and groups. While activist protests have started in
Africa, by implementing meaningful changes in society, the use of an
intervention approach that recognizes the different cultural complexities will
improve the results.[43]
There exist some laws in Indian law
for punitive conduct towards any event of injury, but there is no clear
reference in our legislation of FGM and the practise goes completely ignored.
Globally, it is proven that it is important to provide a particular
provision dealing with this issue, addressing not only enforcement,
but also mitigation, literacy, public awareness, response and rehabilitation.
Therefore, the debate here is definitive that, for the exact same reason,
a specific law on FGM is vital, such that, to reveal the concern and fix it as
a detrimental criminal activity and not regarded as an appropriate religious
practise.
[1]UNICEF, Female Genital
Mutilation(FGM), UNICEF(Oct.15,2020,10:04AM), https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/female-genital-mutilation/.( last visted Oct 5, 2022).
[2]H. Rushwan, Female genital mutilation: A tragedy for women’s reproductive health, 19
AJU 130-133(2013).
[3]WHO, Female Genital Mutilation, WHO( Oct. 15,2020,8;30 PM), https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation (visted Oct 2, 2022).
[4] UNICEF, Supra note 1.
[5] Id.
[6]WHO,UNICEF,UNFPA, FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION 1-20(illustrated ed. World Health Organization, 1997).
[7] R. Shweder, What about "Female Genital
Mutilation"? And Why Understanding Culture Matters in the First Place, 129
AAAS 203-232(2000).
[8] J. Llamas, Female Circumcision:The History, the Current Prevalence and the
Approach to a Patient, MED VIRGINIA( Oct 16, 9;00 PM), https://med.virginia.edu/family-medicine/wp-content/uploads/sites/285/2017/01/Llamas-Paper.pdf. (last visted Oct 5, 2022).
[9] Id.
[10] ROSEMARIE SKAINE, FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION 1-100(Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland 2005).
[11] Salaam, T.
(2004) Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): Background Information and
Issues for Congress.
https://elibrary.slsh.edu.in:2094/HOL/P?h=hein.crs/crsaiqc0001&i=1. (last visted Oct 1, 2022).
[12] International Federation of Medical
Students Association, IFMSA Policy Document Abolishing Female Genital
Mutilation, IFSMA (2018),https://ifmsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/GS_AM2018_Policy_FGM-C.docx.pdf. (last visted Sept 20, 2022).
[13] Slack, A., Female
Circumcision: A Critical Appraisal. Human Rights Quarterly, 10(4),
437-486 (1988). doi:10.2307/761916.
[14] UNICEF, Supra note 1.
[15] Id.
[16] Muthumbi, J., Svanemyr, J., Scolaro, E.,
Temmerman, M., & Say, L., Female
Genital Mutilation: A Literature Review of the Current Status of Legislation
and Policies in 27 African Countries and Yemen, AJRH, 19(3), 32-40(2015).
[17]PS. Yoder, S. Wang, E. Johansen, Estimates of Female Genital
Mutilation/Cutting in 27 African Countries and Yemen, 44. STUDIES IN FAMILY
PLANNING ,189-204(2013).
[18] N. Khalife, Lasting Wounds: Female Genital Mutilation, Bristol University Press
,239-248(2012).
[19]S. Thompson, why per se disability rule for hiv/aids is
both just and must, 15 DJGLP 1-18
(2008).
[20]WHO, Types of Female Genital
Mutilation, WHO( Oct.15, 2020, 3:50 PM), https://www.who.int/teams/srh/types-of-female-genital-mutilation. ( Last visited Sept 21, 2022)
[21]WHO, Care
of Women And Girls Living With Female Genital Mutilation, WHO 1-25(2018). file:///C:/Users/HP/Downloads/9789241513913-eng.pdf (Last visited Sept 24, 2022)
[22]Joshua Project, Bohra, JOSHUA
PROJECT (Oct. 20, 10:05 AM), https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/16494. (Last visited Sept 18, 2022)
[23] Yasmin Bootwala, A Review of Female Genital Cutting (FGC) in the Dawoodi Bohra Community,
CURRENT SEXUAL HEALTH REPORTS (Oct. 11, 2020, 9:00AM), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-019-00213-y. (Last visited Sept 24, 2022)
[26] Lawyers Collective, Guide to
Eliminating the FGM Practice in India, LAWYERS COLLECTIVE (Oct. 15, 2020,
5:00 PM), http://www.lawyerscollective.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Female-Genital-Mutilation-A-guide-to-eliminating-the-FGM-practice-in-India.pdf. (Last visited Sept 14, 2022)
[27]R. Conroy, Female genital mutilation: Whose problem, whose solution, 333 BMJ 106-107(2006).
[28] I. Askew, T. Chaiban, B. Kalasa, P. Sen, A repeat call for complete abandonment of
FGM, JME, 619-620(2016).
[29] UNFPA, Implementation
Of The International And Regional Human Rights Framework For The Elimination Of
Female Genital Mutilation, UNFPA 1-88(2014).
[30] Jacinta K. Muteshi, Suellen Miller, and
José M. Belizán, The ongoing violence
against women: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting, 13 US NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE 1-4(2016).
[32] 2008 (3) SCC
1.
[33] Els Leye, Lut Mergaert, Catarina Arnaut,
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Article Information
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION AROUND WORLD AND HUMAN RIGHTS CONCERNS
Authors: AKSHARA P KAMATH
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2023/04/26
- Volume 2
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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- License CC 4.0
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