Open Access Research Article
CYBER CRIMES TARGETING WOMEN IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW BY: SWETA UPADHYAY & PRASHANT KUMAR VARUN
Published Paper
Article Details
CYBER CRIMES TARGETING WOMEN IN
INDIA: AN OVERVIEW
AUTHORED BY: SWETA UPADHYAY & PRASHANT KUMAR VARUN
LLM student: Law school ICFAI
The ICFAI University, Selaqui,
Dehradun
ABSTRACT: Cyberspace has transformed
communication, commerce, and social interaction, but it also increases the risk
of cybercrime, especially against vulnerable populations like women and
children. This article examines the dimensions of cybercrime against women and
highlighting the legal framework, societal implications, and recommendations
for addressing this pressing issue.
Nowadays, these crimes have taken on new forms
in the cyber world. Instead of just physical harm, women now face cyber-crimes
like harassment, bullying, abuse, and blackmailing. With the rise of
information technology, cyber-crimes against women have become more common in
India. These include things like email harassment, cyber stalking, revenge
pornography, morphing, profile cloning and cyber defamation. Sometimes, these
crimes don't get reported because people don't know what they can do legally,
or a lack of trust in the law enforcement agencies to effectively investigate
and prosecute these cases. Unfortunately, current laws in India aren't always
effective in dealing with cyber-crimes. There's a need for stricter and more
efficient laws to protect women from these digital threats. This article explores the
evolution of cybercrime against women in India, examining its various form of
cyber crime. And examine the legal provision to combat cyber crime against
women in India
The article further highlights the reasons for the
growth in cybercrime against women, including legal and sociological factors.
Additionally, it discusses the impact of cybercrime on victims, emphasizing the
need for comprehensive legal frameworks.
Keywords: Cyber-crime, Information Technology, Cyber
Space, Women, Human Rights of Women, Dignity of Women, Cyber stalking, Cyber
defamation, Cyber trolling, Pornography,
I.
INTRODUCTION:
Human creativity has played a pivotal role in
shaping the course of civilization. From ancient times to the present day, our
innate curiosity and inventiveness have driven remarkable breakthroughs and
advancements. The discovery of fire stands as one of humanity's earliest
achievements, enhancing survival, fostering social connections, and
facilitating community growth. The invention of the wheel revolutionized
transportation, enabling the movement of people and goods over longer distances
and laying the groundwork for modern transportation systems.
In the modern era, the development of the
Internet represents a groundbreaking milestone. Initially conceived in the
1960s as a means of communication among military personnel[1], the
Internet has since evolved into a global network connecting billions of
individuals worldwide. Its transformative impact spans across communication,
business, education, and virtually every aspect of contemporary life,
fundamentally altering how we interact, collaborate, and access information.
The internet has revolutionized communication,
work, and information access, yet it has also introduced new challenges and
threats on a global scale. The criminal mentality of human nature has leveraged
the internet for malicious purposes, resulting in the proliferation of
cybercrime. While these technological advancements have enhanced convenience in
our lives, they have also brought about new risks, notably in the form of
cybercrime[2].
Law is a dynamic concept[3] which
undergoes changes with the changing need of the society. The development of law
is a process which continued with the changes and advancement in social
circumstances. Law is generally made to meet the needs of the society[4].
Gradually the lawmaker feels the need of strong legislation to regulate the
criminal activities on cyber space. Many countries came with laws to regulate
cyber-crime. Cybercrime is, a relatively modern form of criminal activity, has
emerged as a significant challenge in the contemporary world. It encompasses
various illegal activities conducted through computers, the internet, or other
technologies.
On the one hand, technology and the
cyber-criminal as well as cyber-crime are evolving at warp speed, but on other
hand law at best has been developing at snail’s pace and too, mostly as a
knee-jerk[5].
The emergence of digital technology and the merging
of communications and computers has started changing our way of living. There
are now greater opportunities for crime than ever before due to these changes.
Two decades ago, it seemed unimaginable that criminal activity would occur
today. Digital technologies now provide ordinary citizens, even juveniles, with
the capacity to inflict massive harm. These incredible technological advancements
have already had an immense impact on many of aspects of life.
Common types of cybercrime against women in
India include hacking, stalking, cheating by impersonation, voyeurism,
pornography, obscenity, and indecent representation of women in the cyber space.
These crimes are committed through social networking sites, unlawful and
uncivil networking sites, and other cyber platforms.
Women are particularly vulnerable to these
crimes due to their addiction and over-dependence on internet, computer
applications, information technology, and social networking sites. Cybercrimes
against women have been increasing in India, and there is a need for greater
awareness and education to prevent and address these crimes. The Indian
Information Technology Act and 2000 have some loopholes that need to be
addressed to ensure the safety and security of women in cyberspace.
II. BRIEF HISTORY OF CYBER CRIME AGAINST WOMEN IN
INDIA:
It can be evidently
that when India started her journey in the field of information technology. The
drafters of the Indian Information Technology Act, 2000, created it on the
influence of the Model Law on Electronic Commerce, which was adopted by the
resolution of the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1997[6].
The Act turned out to
be a half-baked law as the operating area of the law stretched beyond
electronic commerce to cover cyber-attacks of non-commercial nature on
individuals as well. While commercial crimes and economic crimes were
moderately managed by this Act, it miserably failed to prevent the growth of
cyber-crime against individuals, including women. Before
the passage of the Information and Technology Act 2000, the punishment for
Cyber Crime was given under the Indian Penal Code 1860.
III. MEANING
AND DEFINATION OF CYBER CRIME:
Cybercrime
generally termed, as offences committed by using computer or where the computer
is the victim or merely facilitator for commission of an offences[7].
The Indian Legislature has not defined cybercrime in any statute, including the
Information Technology Act of 2000 and its subsequent amendment act 2008, which
specifically addresses cybercrime issues.
In other hand The Kerala Government’s draw a
comprehensive definition of “cybercrime” as “any criminal activity in which a
computer or network is the source, tool or target or place of crime[8]. There
are several other definitions which try to explain the cybercrime.
The
Black’s Law Dictionary defines “Computer Crime” as “A crime involving the use
of a computer, such as sabotaging or stealing electronically stored data Also
termed cybercrime”[9].
The oxford Dictionary defined the term
cyber-crime as “Criminal activities carried out by means of computers or the
Internet[10].
The
Saudi Arabian Legislation has codified definition of “cybercrime” is defined
as:
“Any
action which involves the use of computers or computer networks, in violation
of the provisions of this Law”[11].
Unfortunately, the current definitions and
descriptions of cybercrime do not encompass the complexity and nuances of
cybercrime against women.
IV. CYBER
CRIME CAN BE BROADLY DIVIDED INTO THREE (3) CATEGORIES:
Cyber-crimes
can be broadly divided into three major Categories[12]
–
1.
Cyber-crimes against persons, first category include
various crimes like transmission of obscene messages, harassment of anyone with
the use of a computer such as e-mail, cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking.
2.
Cyber-crimes against Property, the second
category of is that of Cyber-crimes against all forms of property. These crimes
include illegal and unauthorized computer trespassing, and transmission of
important and critical information outside the organization which can lead to a
great loss to the organization.
3.
Cyber-crimes against Government. The third
category of Cyber-crimes relate to Cyber-crimes against Government which
includes Cyber Terrorism[13],
Cyber-Warfare and Cyber Espionage.
V.
CYBER CRIME AGAINST WOMEN:
1. Cyber
Bullying: For the First time “The Canadian named Bill Belsey”
defined the term cyberbullying[14].
a term coined by Canadian Bill Belsey to describe 'the use of
information and communication technologies to support deliberate, repeated, and
hostile behavior by an individual or group, that is intended to harm others'[15].
Harassing or insulting victims using electronic or communication devices
such as computer, mobile phone, laptop, etc. or digital platform.
2.
Cyber Stalking: Indian
Penal Code Amendment 2013, Section 354D[16]
talk about the term stalking. Cyber stalking means any man, follow a woman
physically, tracing her movement or repeatedly tries to communicate her without
her interest through internet or electronic or communication devices such as
computer, mobile phone, laptop, etc. or digital platform. Cyber stalking is a
way to use the Internet to stalk someone for online harassment and online
abuse. Cyber Stalking is a
punishable offence and attracts section 354 (D), 509 Indian Penal Code 1860,
and section 67[17]
under Information Tecnology Amendment Act 2008.
3.
Harassment through e-mails: As
name suggest harassment of the victims through e-mails and is not a new
concept. It includes blackmailing, threatening, bullying, and even cheating via
email.
4.
Cyber Defamation: Black's
law dictionary, defamation means, "the offense of injuring a person's
character, fame, or reputation by false and malicious statements[18]".
In simple words, defamation is an injury to the reputation of another person.
There are two form of defamation Libel and Slander. Libel is a published/written
defamation which is in permanent form.
On the other hand, Slander is oral or by gesture which is temporary
form. Libel is actionable per se where
Slander requires actual damage. Cyber defamation includes both libel and
Slander.
5.
E- Mail Spoofing: it
generally refers to an e-mail that emerges from one source but has been sent
from another source. It can cause monetary damage.
6.
Cyber Phishing:
Phishing where cyber criminals pretend as genuine service provider and try to
collect the vital personal data such as password, username, bank details etc. of
the victims, for financial gain. When phishing is conducted through mobile i.e.
SMS it is called as Smishing, and if done through calling it is known as
Vishing[19].
7.
Cyber Morphing:
Morphing is a new era cybercrime, it uses animation technology by criminals to
morph (edit) the original picture of any person (women) and posted in social
networking websites or digital platform.
8.
Cyber Pornography: The
term ‘pornography’ means any portrayal of sexual subject matter for the purpose
of sexual satisfaction. In a legal sense, Pornography means “obscenity”.
The word obscene has not been defined in IPC as the concept of obscenity
differs from society to society and from time to time[20].
But the test of obscenity laid down in the English decision, the landmark
Hickling Case[21]
is the basis of the test of obscenity given in Section 292(1)[22].
Section 67[23]
which covers 'obscene act or conduct in general, Section 67A[24]
specifically covers sexually explicit act or conduct and 67B[25]
exclusively deal with child pornography.
VI. LEGAL
INSTRUMENTS FOR COMBATING CYBER CRIME AGAINST WOMEN:
1. THE CONSTITUTION
OF INDIA, 1950: The supreme law of the land protects the women against cybercrime.
Article 19 and 21 provides protection to
women. Fundamental right to speech and expression is protected under Article
19(1)(a) of the constitution. The right to speech and expression is not
absolute and is subject to reasonable restrictions under Article 19(2). The
right to live with human dignity[26]
in cyber space is also protected under Article 21 of the constitution of India[27].
2. INDIAN PENAL CODE 1860: Indian Penal Code
1860 not especially deals with the cybercrime, but the amendment Act 2013
inserted section
specifically deals with cybercrime related to women.
i.
Obscenity
and Pornography: section 292 to 294, 354A, 354B,354C, 509
ii.
Section 354- Outraging the modesty of women
iii.
Section
354A-Sexual Harassment
iv.
Section
354C-Voyeurism (this inserted after Nirbhaya Rape Case,2012)
v.
Section354D-Stalking
vi.
Section
509- Word, gesture or act intended to insult women modesty
3. INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY ACT 2000:
Chapter IX of the Act covers penalties,
compensation, & adjudication. According to Section 43 the person who harms
the computer systems shall be liable to pay damages by way of compensation to
the affected person.
i.
Sections are 66A for Sending offensive messages
through communication service,
ii.
Section 65 for Tampering with computer source
documents,
iii.
Section 70 for Tampering of confidential
information,
iv.
Section 72 for Online stalking,
v.
Section 42A and Section 66 of IT Act, 2000(
r/w Section 379,406 of IPC, 1860) for Data hacking,
vi.
Section 43B,66E and 67C for Data Theft,
vii.
Section 67A for Pornography.
viii.
Section 67B for Child Pornography
VII.
LEADING CASE LAWS
Regina v
Hicklin,’[28]
as the tendency “to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such
immoral influences and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall”,
and it was understood that this test would apply only to isolated passages of a
work. Those “whose minds are open to such immoral influences primarily meant
the young, as Lord CJ Cockburn explained in his Hicklin opinion, the danger of
prurient literature was that it “would suggest to the minds of the young of
either sex, and even to persons of more advanced years, thoughts of a most
impure and libidinous character”
The
test was slightly modified in United States v One Book Entitled “Ulysses”[29]
“The superior court held that the criterion for obscenity was not the content
of isolated obscene passages but rather “whether a publication taken as a whole
has a libidinous effect”. In Roth v United States,[30]
the US Supreme Court tendered a basic redefinition of obscenity: “whether, to
the average person, applying community standards, the dominant theme of the
material taken as a whole appeals to prurient interests”.
Whereas
in Miller v California, the US Supreme Court declared that the states might
prohibit the printing or sale of works, “which appeal to prurient interest in
sex, which portray sexual conduct in a patently offensive way, and which, taken
as a whole, do not have serious literary, artistic, political or scientific
value”.
In
Miller v California,[31]
the US Supreme Court set-out a three-prong test for obscenity, called the
“Miller Test”:
i.
Whether “the average person”, applying
contemporary community standards would find the work, taken as a whole, appeals
to the prurient interest,
ii.
Whether the work depicts or describes, in a
patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by state law,
iii.
Whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks
serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
In Ranjit
Udeshi State of Maharashtra[32],
case established a modified version of the Hicklin test as the test for
obscenity in India. The Supreme Court has observed that the rest obscenity laid
down by Cockburn C) should not be discarded. It held, “that the test of
obscenity to adopt in India is that obscenity without a preponderating social
purpose or profit cannot have the constitutional protection of free speech and
expression and obscenity in treating sex in a manner appealing to the carnal
side of human nature or having that tendency[33].
In
the subsequent cases, the Supreme Court, further
articulated on the test for obscenity. In Chandrakant Kalyandas Kakodkar v
State of Maharashtra,[34]
and others, the court held:
What
is obscenity has not been defined either in section 292 IPC or in any of the
statutes prohibiting and penalizing, mailing, importing, exporting, publishing
and selling of obscene matters It is the duty of Court to consider the obscene
matter by taking an overall view of the entire work and to determine whether
the obscene passages are so likely to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are
open to influences of this sort and into whose hands the book is likely to fall
and in doing so one must not overlook the influence of the book on the social
morality of our contemporary society.[35]
In
Samaresh Bose v Amal Mitra[36],
the court held that “the concept of obscenity would
different from country to country
depending on the standards of morals of contemporary society”. The bout
differentiated between “vulgarity” and “obscenity”:
“A
vulgar writing is not necessarily scene. Vulgarity
arouses a feeling of disgust and revulsion and also boredom but does nor bare
the effect of depraving, debasing and corrupting the morals of any reader of
the novel, whereas obscenity has the tendency to deprave and corrupt those
whose minds ateopen to such immoral influence”
VIII.
REASON FOR GROWTH IN CYBER-CRIME AGAINST WOMEN:
Cybercrime, a significant threat to society,
primarily affects women and children. The information of net surfers is easily
disclosed by cybercafé owners, leading to illegal activities. Although
technology is beneficial for development, it is also increasing the crime rate
against weaker sections of society. The increasing cyber-crime rate against
women can be attributed to two main reasons: legal reasons, such as the Indian
IT Act 2000, which aims to combat cybercrimes, and sociological reasons, such
as the fear of defamation of family names and the anonymity of perpetrators.
Many women in India do not report cyber-crimes, fearing it may disturb their
family life[37].
IX. MPACT OF CYBER-CRIME ON
VICTIMS:
The internet has become a crucial tool in modern
life, providing knowledge and efficient tasks. Despite the Covid pandemic
increasing internet reliance, cyber-crime remains a significant threat,
negatively impacting daily lives. Despite its positive impact, it is essential
to address cyber crime's threats. Cyber-crime is a non-traditional threat
utilizing computers for illegal activities, aiming to cause physical or mental
harm through the internet and modern telecommunication networks. The threat of
cyber-crime has risen due to the increased usage of the internet and reliance.
The term cybercrime encompasses a wide range of crimes including cyber
stalking, cyber harassment, email spoofing, defamation, and morphing of
pictures[38].
With the increasing popularity of Artificial
Intelligence (AI), technologies such as deep fakes which can manipulate facial
expressions of people in pictures and videos using deep generative techniques
pose a significant threat to people on the internet leaving them vulnerable[39]. The
motive of cyber-crime is to directly or indirectly cause physical or mental
harm to an individual or group of people using the internet and other forms of
modern telecommunication networks.
X.
CONCLUSION:
The primary challenge associated with cybercrime
is its dynamic nature, driven by the continuous evolution of digital
technology. As the internet continues to evolve and permeate every
aspect of daily life, the risk of digital threats such as cyberbullying,
stalking, defamation, and harassment has escalated, disproportionately
affecting vulnerable populations like women. Despite the existence of legal
frameworks such as the Indian Penal Code and the Information Technology Act,
the current laws often fall short in effectively addressing the complexities of
cyber-crimes against women.
In
2008, provision of punishment was made in the Information Technology Act, 2002
by including new Cyber Crimes. In view of the changing nature of Cyber Crime at
present, there is still a need to make changes to the Information Technology
Act, 2000. This act is still not able to provide full punishment for Cyber
Crime against women. A separate law needs to be made. A comprehensive data
protection regime needs to be incorporated in the law to make it more
effective. Special training must be given be the officers to deal with the
cyber-crime against women.
To
safeguarding the rights and dignity of women in cyberspace requires a
multi-faceted approach that combines robust legal frameworks, awareness
campaigns, support systems, and proactive measures to address the ever-evolving
challenges of cybercrime. Only through concerted efforts and collective action
can we create a safer and more inclusive digital environment for all women in
India.
SUGGESATION:
For
Users
i.
A User must use a strong password minimum 12 characters
which contain upper case and lower case at list one special or numeric character.
ii.
A User
must update the software frequently.
iii.
Using anti-virus in a device, it can help to
detect and prevent malware.
For
Government
iv.
The government should launch comprehensive
awareness programs in collaboration with cybersecurity experts to educate the
public about preventive measures against cybercrime.
v.
These awareness programs should be designed
to inform citizens about the various types of cyber threats targeting
individuals, particularly women, in the Indian.
vi.
The awareness programs should cover topics
such as safe internet practices, recognizing phishing attempts, securing
personal devices and online accounts, and responding to cyberbullying and
harassment.
vii. Utilizing
various platforms such as workshops, seminars, webinars, and social media
campaigns, the government can reach a wide audience and promote cyber
viii.
The government should issue a helpline number
for cyber-crime victims.
REFERENCE:
A.
BOOKS:
1.
K.
Jaishankar, Cyber Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes and Criminal 2011
2.
Dr.
Vishwanath Paranjape, Legal Dimensions of Cyber Crimes and Preventive Laws,
(Central Law Agency, Allahabad, 2010).
3.
Debarati
Halder and K. Jaishankar, "Cyber Crime and Victimization of
Women",information science reference, ed1st 2012
4.
Vakul
Sharma and Seema Sharma,,Information Technology law and Practice, P318,
LexisNexis, Eight Eidition,2023.
5.
N S
Nappinai, Technology law Decoded, 36 (LexisNexis, New Delhi 1st edn., 2024).
6.
Dr.
Kanika Seth, (Computer, Internet and New Technology laws,00, LexisNexis, 3rd
end, 2022
7.
Dr.
Ashok Jani, Cyber law (Information Technology Act) p.1, ASCENT Publications 2nd
end., 2020.
B.
STATUTES:
1.
INDIAN
CONSTITUTION 1950
2.
INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY ACT 2000
3.
INDIAN
PENAL CODE 1860
4.
EVIDENCE
ACT 1872
5.
PROTECTION
OF CHILDREN FROM SEXUAL OFFENCES ACT
2012
6.
INDECENT
REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN (PROHIBITION) ACT, 1986
C.
ARTICLES:
1.
Agarwal,
M. (2022). Cybercrimes against women in India: A review of literature. Journal
of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 14(1), 71-84.
2.
Gupta,
S. (2021). Cybercrimes against women in India: A study of the challenges and
opportunities. Journal of Law, Technology and Policy, 14(2), 1-22.
3.
Abbasi,
A., & Abbasi, M. (2022). Cybercrimes against women: A global perspective.
Journal of Cyber Security and Law, 7(1), 1-16.
4.
Gupta,
A., & Singh, S. (2019). Cybercrimes against women: A global perspective.
Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 11(3), 235-252.
5.
Kumar,
A., & Yadav, A. (2021). Cybercrimes against women: A study of the
challenges and opportunities. Journal of Law, Technology and Policy, 14(3),
1-22.
6.
National
Crime Records Bureau. (2022). Cybercrime in India, 2020. Ministry of Home
Affairs, Government of India.
7.
Jaspreet
Singh, VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN CYBER WORLD: A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIA
“International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences”
(ISSN: 2278-6236)
D.
INTERNET
SOURCES
[1] In 1960, the internet
was first created as a tool for interconnection of computer as amongst military
personnel known as ARPANER (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)
to communicate and share data.
[3] Justice Gavai said, “Law is not static, but it is
dynamic. Available at https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/law-changes-as-per-needs-of-society-sc-justice-gavai-6017386/#:~:text=During%20his%20speech%2C%20Justice%20Gavai,to%20the%20needs%20of%20society%E2%80%A6
[9] Black’s Law Dictionary (9th ed.) defines crime
as “An act that the law makes punishable, the beach of a legal duty treated as
the subject matter of a criminal proceeding Also termed criminal wrong.
[11] Article
1(8) Saudi Arabia Anti-Cyber Crime Law, Royal Decree No. M/17.
[12]
Nidhi Agarwal & Dr. Neeraj Kasuhik, ”Cyber
Crime Against Women”, GJRIM VOL.4, NO.1, 2014.
[16] Section
354 of the IPC states:
(1)
Any man who—
(i)
follows a woman and contacts, or attempts to contact such woman to foster
personal interaction repeatedly despite a clear indication of disinterest by
such woman; or
(ii)
monitors the use by a woman of the internet, email or any other form of
electronic communication,
commits
the offence of stalking;
[17]
Section 67 of the act attracted only when person
publishes or sends salacious material through electronic or communication
device or Internet.
[19]
Dr. Kanika Seth, (Computer, Internet and New Technology laws,00, LexisNexis,
3rd end, 2022
[23]
Section 67 of the Information Technology Act 2000, Punishment for publishing or
transmitting obscene material in Electonic form.
[24]
Section 67A of Information Technology Act 2000, Punishment for publishing or transmitting of material
containing sexually explicit act, etc.
[25]Section 67B of Information Technology Act 2000, Punishment for
publishing or transmitting of material depicting children in sexually explicit
act.
[26] In
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that the right to live
is not merely a physical right but includes within its ambit the right to live
with human dignity.
[27] Protection of life and personal liberty No person shall
be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure
established by law.
[35] Chandrakant
Kalyanda Kakodkar v State of Maharashtra, AIR 1970 SC 1390: 1970 (2) SC) 217:
(1970) 2 SCR 80
[36] Samaresh
Bose v Amal Mitra, AIR 1986 SC 967: (1985) 4 SCC 289: 1986 C: LJ 24.
[37] Dr. Kasturi Bora,”
CYBER SOCIALIZING AND THE GROWTH OF HI-TECH CRIMES AGAINST WOMEN” (I.S.S.N
2321- 6417 (Online).
[39] Written by Jahnavi Chopra” Cyber Crime and it’s Impact on the Lives of Women” Available at https://medium.com/@leveledlegislationldn/cyber-crime-and-its-impact-on-the-lives-of-women-b84d29c5814a#:~:text=As%20a%20result%2C%20people%20develop,crime%20try%20to%20commit%20suicide
Article Information
CYBER CRIMES TARGETING WOMEN IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW BY: SWETA UPADHYAY & PRASHANT KUMAR VARUN
Authors: SWETA UPADHYAY, PRASHANT KUMAR VARUN
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/04/27
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Access Open Access
- License CC 4.0
All research articles published in International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis are open access and available to read, download and share, subject to proper citation of the original work.
Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis.