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COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE: ORIGIN AND TYPES BY: AAKANKSHA CHANDRA
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COLLECTIVE
VIOLENCE: ORIGIN AND TYPES
AUTHORED BY: AAKANKSHA
CHANDRA
Institutional Affiliation: LL.M.
student at Chanakya National Law University, Patna
Abstract
Collective
violence, a disturbing societal phenomenon, continues to plague communities
worldwide, leaving behind a trail of devastation and despair. This abstract
delves into the origins and underlying causes of collective violence,
unravelling its complex web of social, economic, and political factors.
Examining historical contexts and contemporary incidents, the research
highlights the multifaceted nature of collective violence, often rooted in
deep-seated prejudices, economic disparities, and political instabilities. By
understanding the intricate interplay of these elements, societies can address
the root causes, fostering dialogue, tolerance, and social cohesion. This
abstract emphasizes the urgency of comprehensive research and proactive
interventions to mitigate collective violence, promoting peace, harmony, and
understanding among diverse communities.
Key words –
Collective violence, peace, riots, terrorism, genocide, revolt etc.
CHAPTER- I
INTRODUCTION
Collective
violence can be described as violence by number of people who identify
themselves as members of a group against those of another to achieve social,
political, economic, objectives. It involves use of force, coercion,
aggression, violent action to achieve social, political, economic, cultural
agendas or goals. As per World Report on Violence and Health, "Collective violence" is defined as
"the instrumental use of violence by people who identify themselves as
members of a group--whether this group is transitory or has a more permanent
identity--against another group or set of individuals, in order to achieve
political, economic, or social objectives."[1]
There are
different type of collective violence such as institutional, organised,
symbolic, political, and structural. Apart from this there are different forms
ranges from minor acts of violence such as riots to more organised and
aggravated form of violence such as war, terrorism etc. These forms came under
the ambit of different types of collective violence.
It is
causes due to many factors such as socio-economic, political, cultural and
religious, psychological factors. Apart from this identity and group dynamic,
media and communication also help in provoking collective violence. These
factors result into infant mortality, communicable diseases, disability and
also mentally affect the health of the individual.[2] In
addition, results in demographic changes including large scale migration,
refugees etc. These consequences create conditions conducive to the emergence
of collective violence.
Understanding
and addressing the underlying causes of collective violence is crucial for its
prevention and effective response, as it has the potential to cause significant
harm to law and order, undermine peace and stability and ultimately disrupt
society. That’s why it is important to have legal framework dealing with
collective violence. But till today there is no any uniform law expressly
dealing with collective violence. It is in scattered form and different laws
dealing with different perspective of collective violence.
HISTORY
It is
difficult to find the true origin of collective violence as the origin is much
more complex and multifaceted. But with reference to various violent acts
around the globe we can evaluate the development of collective violence. It can
range from relatively minor acts of aggression, such as riots or mob violence,
to more organized and systematic forms, such as ethnic conflict, war,
terrorism, and genocides etc.
India the
land where leader like Mahatma Gandhi born who is the believer of non-violence
is not apart from the death, violence caused by the collective violence. 1947
Partition witness the greatest bloodshed in the century. Independence of two
dominion state i.e India and Pakistan from the British crown after a prolong
struggles, revolts and sacrifices embarked the disorganisation, chaos between
Hindu and Sikhs on the one side and Muslim on the other side. People move from
one place to another to become citizen of the country influenced by their own
religion or the sentiments, love, care for the country. The partition of 1947
marked the greatest migration and violence in India’s history. As Khushwant
Singh notes- “By the summer of 1947, when the creation of new state of Pakistan
was formally announced, 10 million people- Hindu, Sikhs and Muslims were in
flight. By the time the monsoon broke, almost a million of them were dead, and
all of northern India in arms, in terror and in hiding.” [3]
After
independence, there are many instances of collective violence in the country
such as Gujarat riots (1969), Anti-Sikh riots (1984), Bhagalpur riots (1989),
Kashmir violence (1989), Godhra train burning or Gujarat riots (2002),
Muzaffarnagar riots (2013), Delhi riots (2020) etc. These all incidents
contributed in the development of gravity of collective violence. As per the data of Government press, 1981,
made a quantitative study on violence and crime in India from the year
1953-1977. The study clearly shows drastic rise in violence from 5.5 to 12.9
over the years.[4]
CHAPTER II
TYPES OF COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE
- ORGANISED – Such a form of collective violence that
require violence by number of people belonging to a group or organisation
which may or may not have legal sanction having common goal and objective.
That means it may occur within or outside the bounds of legal authority,
making it more diverse in nature. Unlike other form of collective violence
this includes proper planning, leadership and strategies. Example –
Terrorism, Insurgency.
- INSTITUTIONAL – Such a type of collective violence
sanctioned by institutions or groups that have the authority or power to
enforce their actions. This form of violence often involves the systemic
use of force, coercion, or other oppressive tactics carried out by the
institutions such as governments, paramilitary groups, other organized
entities, etc. against individuals, communities, or other groups within
the legal framework or governmental authority. Example- Ethnic cleansing
by state. War.
- SITUATIONAL – It is unplanned, unorganised and
spontaneous form of collective violence. The violence is result of the
situational factor rather than outcome of pre- planned action by any
organisation or the institution. This form of violence occured when group
of individual spontaneous response to immediate circumstances involving
emotional factor such as anger, frustration etc. Example – Riot, Mob
Lynching
- SYMBOLIC – Such a form of violence that isn’t
directly cause physical harm but associated with anything including idea,
symbols, gesture, action, false consiousness that cause violence. This
form of violence operates on a psychological or emotional level and is
intended to communicate power, dominance, or ideological superiority. The
primary goal of symbolic collective violence is to create fear, anxiety,
or a sense of vulnerability in the target or the wider audience. It can be
used to manipulate perceptions and emotions. Example – Hate Speech, Racial
slurs.
- POLITICAL – Such a form of collective
violence carried out to gain some political objective and agendas. This
form of collective violence used force, coercion to influence or
disorganise political maters includes challenging existing political
party, regime change, setting up new political party, autonomy,
territorial control etc.
Example – Basque ETA in Spain (Separatist
movement target to form independent states)
- STRUCTURAL – Such a collective violence
caused due to making changes in the already existing structures within the
society that may harm the people.
CHAPTER III
UNDERSTANDING
DIFFERENT FORM OF COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE
- RIOTS – It is one of the form of collective
violence where group of people indulge in mass mobilisation, disorder,
violence in public places also damaging public property. It is
unorganised, unplanned, spontaneous, violent behaviour. It is generally
outbreak due to social, political, economic injustice including religion
disputes, economic disparity, political repression etc. Example – Gujarat
riot (2002), Aligarh riot (2006), Muzaffarnagar riot (2013). These all
riots are result of tension between the Hindu Muslim communities.
Indian Penal Code doesn’t define the term riot but
mentioned the situation under which one can penalise for riot. It clearly
states that “whenever force or violence is used by an unlawful assembly, or by any
member thereof, in prosecution of the common object of such assembly, every
member of such assembly is guilty of the offence of rioting.[5] In addition, IPC clearly and expressly mentioned
punishment with imprisonment for 2years along with fine and both for whosoever
found guilty of rioting.[6]
- REVOLT AND REBELLION – It is a form of collective violence
where group of people revolted and rise up against the existing authority.
It can take various forms such as protest, strike. Example – French
revolution (1789-1799).
- TERRORISM – It is an unlawful act involving use of
force, violence to create fear, terror against civilians in furtherance of
political and ideological goal. Federal Bureau of Investigation define
terrorism as unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property
to intimidate or coerce government or civilian population in furtherance
of political or social objectives.[7]
The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 deals
with combating terrorism in India. The said Act define terrorist act as “Whoever
does any act with intent to threaten or likely to threaten the unity,
integrity, security, economic security, or sovereignty of India or with intent
to strike terror or likely to strike terror in the people or any section of the
people in India or in any foreign country” commits terrorist act.[8]
In Hitendra Vishnu Thakur v. State of
Maharastra,[9]
SC held that it is not possible to precisely define terrorism but SC mentioned
that terrorism can be describe as to create violence to impact long- lasting
psychological effect on the civilian as well as the whole society. Court also
mentioned that its objective is to create fear and terror among the people and
ultimately affect the peace and tranquility in society.
- WAR – It is a state of armed confrontation
between two nation state in order to achieve political, economic,
territorial, ideological objective. It involve large- scale social,
political, economic, humanitarian consequences. Example Indo- Pak war
(1999). World War II (1945)
Rome
Convention mentioned war crime means any act against person or property involving
grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August, 1949 and other serious
violations of the laws and customs applicable in international armed conflict,
within the established framework of international law.[10]
- GENOCIDE – It is large scale or mass killing
committed against human diversity or the individual belonging to a
particular group. General Assembly resolution 96(1) declared, ‘Genocide is
a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, as homicide is
the denial of the right to live of individual human beings’. Example –
Yugoslavia Genocide, Rwanda Genocide.
The standard definition Genocide is contained in
Article II of Genocide Convention,[11] which
is later on adopted in ad hoc Tribunal and ICC Statute.
"Genocide" means any of the following acts committed with intent to
destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group,
as such:[12]
(a) Killing
members of the group;
(b) Causing
serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c)
Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring
about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d)
Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the
group to another group.
In Prosecutor
v. Goran Jelisic,[13]
an ICTY Trial Chamber stated that killings committed by single perperator is
enough to establish the material element of the crime of genocide.
CHAPTER IV
CAUSES
AND FACTORS BEHIND COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE
- SOCIO- ECONOMIC
INEQUALITIES –
Unequal distribution of resources, wealth, education, opportunity,
inflation, unemployment, poverty, discrimination is the root cause of
social division and injustice to marginalised or disadvantage group.
Example- Naxalite- Maoist insurgency – The
ongoing armed conflict deep rooted in communist and the Marxist ideologies. The
Naxalites are largely active in tribal and rural areas of India. The Naxals
feel themselves being eliminated, deprived, discriminated with basic human
needs that result into increasing perception of discrepancy between what people
have and what they feel they are actually entitled to enjoy. They believes
authority, government are corrupt, oppressive, working for the interest of
elite class only. In order to protect their interest, they start revolt against
the authority and the government.
The Arab Spring Insurgency[14] – Protest broke out in Middle East and North Africa
(MENA) region. The region behind such protest is to change the long lasting
authoritarian regime, corruption, economic stagnation, unemployment, poverty
for great civil liberties, political freedom, cost of living.
Russian Revolution[15] – The
existing autocratic monarch government isn’t addressing the needs and
grievances of the common people. Russia participation in World War-I outbreak
social- economic disparity. Ultimately result in shortage of food, bread riot.
Feeling of discrimination, deprivation take form of
collective violence in all the above mentioned examples.
- POLITICAL FACTOR - Authoritarian regimes, political
repression, lack of political freedoms, unequal distribution of power, and
human rights abuses, suppression of dissent can lead to anger, frustration
and resistance among populations seeking political change. And such
frustration, anger result in revolt, rebel against the government. Example 1. Syrian Civil War – Syria is under authoritarian rule of
Al- Assad family from decades. The regime was very brutal denies human
rights, civil liberties. There is political repression, chaos all over the
state and as a result people started protest against ruling government
inspired by the Arab Spring Uprising in neighbouring countries. But
government reacted with violence using police, military. Soon small scale
protest turn into a great civil war in Syria. Later, ISIS developed and
capturing significant territory of Syria. ISIS develop their own Caliphate
by interpreting Islamic law. The new regime is more brutal and
bloodthirsty. Whoever tries to oppose and against the rule of Caliphate is
punished through mass killing, amputation, execution, forced conversion,
sexual slavery and many more. It also responsible for flourishing
terrorism not only in Syria but across the globe. ISIS become a threat and
soon it can be realised by different nation state. Various coalition, air
strikes made by different countries prominent among them is U.S that
result in territorial losses and weaken ISIS. But still today the remains
of ISIS is a concern for International security.
Example 2. Russia- Ukraine war – The accelerating
tension is the result of political turmoil between Russia and Ukraine. Ukraine
is part of USSR earlier. After USSR breakdown in 15 countries, Ukraine is one
of them being independent in the year 1991. In the year 2014, Ukraine wanted to
be part of European Union but Russia doesn’t wanted so because member of EU
become member of NATO. For protecting integrity, sovereignty and security of
the country, Russia attacked Crimea (lower part of Ukraine) and over powered
it.[16]
After that Minsk agreement is signed in 2015 to end the ongoing conflict. But
the situation is worsened when Ukraine declared to be part of NATO in the year
2017.[17]
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) is an
alliance formed against Soviet Union in 1949 after World War II.[18]
And we all know that there is a cold war going between Russia and USA. If
Ukraine become part of NATO then military of NATO deploy in Ukraine and Russia
will not allow any enemy country near its territorial boundry. Also any armed conflict against Europe and North
America or any member is considered as attack against the all members of NATO.[19]
Russia declared Donetsk and Luhask as independent country and deploy its
military there. And by using Chapter 7 of United Nation Organisation, attack on
Ukraine through Donetsk and Luhask mentioning it special military operation not
a war.
So the political factor i.e political independence,
sovereignty, integrity, liberty here lead to massive collective violence.
- PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTOR - Food, clothes, shelter are three basic
human need. Likewise love, care, affection, security, self- esteem,
collective identity are the psychological need. Social exclusion, denial
of identity and group dynamics is most important factor that impact
psychological behaviour of an individual or a group. Identity of one group
over power another and develop a sense of being eliminated, lessen
personal identity and responsibility towards another. Such Psychological
factor lead to irrational decision making, anger, frustration and
ultimately exaggerate violence.
Example – Rwanda genocide is the horrifying example
of collective violence burst due to psychological hatred between the Hutu and
Tutsi group. The hatred outburst to such an extent result into ethnic cleansing
of Hutu community.
Earlier by 1700, Rwanda is ruled by Tutsi. After
that invasion of European countries which was welcomed by Rwanda because
Europeans were more prosperous at that time. Invaded colonies favoured Tutsi
over Hutu and Hutu being side lined that develop anger, frustration among them.
After end of World war-I, Belgium took control over Rwanda and gave authority
in the hands of Tutsi till it favour their interest. But after World War -II,
Hutu community shouted for their interest, supported by Belgium and overthrow
Tutsi. The power now comes in the hand of Hutu community. And in the year 1962,
Rwanda become independent. In 1994, the Genocide outburst due to aircraft
bombing of Juvenal Habyarimana, President of Rwanda belonging to a Hutu
community.[20]
The incident spark long lasting revenge, anger, frustration among Hutus against
Tutsi. The revenge lastly result finally in Rwanda Genocide.
- CULTURAL AND RELIGIOS
FACTOR – Culture and
religion is the belief that binds the individual. It develops a sense of
togetherness, unity, brotherhood. But sometime this belief become the
reason of hatred, aggression, frustration, anger that over turns into
violence.
Example: Gujarat riot (2002) - The carnage is
the result of ongoing tension between the Hindu and the Muslim community in the
name of religion. It’s not like the tension between the Hindu – Muslim was seen
for the first time. Its traces found in the country’s history. Gujrat riot is
an outcome of such communal tension. It started when a train compartment of
Sabarmati Express burnt at Godhra in Gujarat carrying pilgrim from Ayodhya.[21]
Fifty- seven Hindus were burn alive.[22] And to
take the revenge of such killing riot was outburst against the Muslims.
- IDEOLOGICAL FACTOR – Ideologies is the set of values,
belief, principles, that governs individual action. And such ideologies
become to justify violent action that lead to collective violence.
Example – Holocaust is one such example of
ideological conflict between the Nazism and the Jews. It is the result of anti-
sematic ideology of Adolf Hitler that believes jews to be inferior race and
danger for the ‘Aryan race’.[23]
And also weaken the glory of Germany that lead to formation concentration camp
for exploitation, persecution of Jews and mass killing of Jews ultimately
result into the huge massacre “The Holocaust”.
- MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION – Media is considered to be the fourth
pillar of democracy. It plays an important role in shaping the minds of
people, creating some perspective, views, narratives that govern their
action. But sometimes media used this tool to spread hate speech, agenda,
propaganda that cause tension, violence affecting public tranquility in
the society.
Example – In Rwanda Genocide, media and plays a
significant role in outbreaking hatred between the Hutu and Tutsi community.[24]
Radio station named Radio Television Libre des Mille Collines (RTLMC)
continuous broadcasting racial and revengeful statements, hate speech, obscene
jokes, music against the Tutsi community. That provoke the feelings of anger,
frustration among Hutu community is one of the factor responsible for Rwanda
Genocide.
CHAPTER
V
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
There is no
uniform legislation dealing with the collective violence. Laws are scatter and
found under different Acts dealing different kind of collective violence.
- Under Indian Penal Code
Chapter 8,
Section 141-160 dealing with the offence against Public Tranquility. Indian
Penal Code doesn’t expressly mentioned the provision for preventive collective
violence but mentioned a chapter that indirectly punished the offenders
involved in collective violence affecting public peace.
Section 143 –
Punishment for 6 month and fine for the member of unlawful assembly.[25]
Section 147
– Punishment for 2 years, fine and both to person guilty of rioting.
Section 153 –
Punishment for 6 month fine and both to person who wantonly giving provocation
to any person intent to cause riot.
Section 153
A- Punishment for 3 years, fine and both for promoting enmity between the
groups on the ground of religion, race, etc. and doing acts prejudicial to
maintenance of harmony.
Section
153B - Punishment for 5years, fine and both for making, asserting amputation,
assertions prejudicial to national integration.
- Under Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967
This Act
provide more effective prevention of certain unlawful activities of
individuals.[26]
Over the years the said Act develop as an Act for prevention of terrorist
activities. Section 15 define the terrorist act. And Chapter IV, Section 16 -
23 of the Act, 1967 deals with punishment for the terrorist activities.
Section 16
deals with punishment for terrorist activities that clearly states that whoever
commits a terrorist act shall and such act resulted in the death of any person,
be punishable with death or imprisonment for life, and shall also be liable to
fine and in any other case, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which
shall not be less than five years but which may extend to imprisonment for
life, and shall also be liable to fine.
Section 17 –
Punishment for the term not less than 5years which may extend to life
imprisonment and fine for raising funds for the terrorist activities.
Section 18
A - Punishment for the term not less than 5years which may extend to life
imprisonment and fine for organising camps for imparting training in terrorism.
Section 18
B – Punishment for the term not less than 5years which may extend to life
imprisonment and fine for recruiting any person for terrorist act.
Section 19 –
Punishment for the term not less than 3years which may extend to life
imprisonment and fine to harbour or conceal any person knowing to be terrorist.
Section 20 –
Punishment for life imprisonment and fine for being a member of terrorist gang
and organisation.
- Under National Security Act, 1980
This Act
allows preventive detention of any person who resemble to threat to the
security of the country. Indirectly related to causing collective violence in
the country. Central and state government have power to detain any person in
order to prevent him acting prejudicial to the defence, security, public order
of India and relation with foreign power.[27] In addition also power of expulsion in
respect of foreigner.
International legal framework for
preventing collective violence
- Under Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
Section 5
of the statute clearly gave jurisdiction to the International Criminal court in
respect of following crimes: (a) The crime of genocide;[28] (b)
Crimes against humanity;[29]
(c) War crimes;[30](d)
The crime of aggression.[31]
- Under Universal Declaration of Human Right and
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
UDHR and International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights is a milestone document in the history consisting of 30
Articles and 27 Articles respectively dealing with various human, civil and
political rights. The international document clearly talks about brotherhood,[32]
Right to life,[33]
prohibition of slavery,[34]
prohibit torture and inhuman treatment,[35] right
to recognition as a person before the law,[36] and
prohibition of propaganda advocating war or national, racial or religious
hatred.[37]
These all rights
prohibit and prevent collective violence raised on the ground of ethnicity,
culture, religion, ideology etc. And grant right to life to everyone
irrespective of age, caste, sex, place of birth, religion etc.
CHAPTER VI
SUGGESTIONS
There are
some suggestions to prevent collective violence
1. Formation
of a uniform legislation dealing with all existing form of collective violence.
2. Promote
education and awareness teaching about valuing human rights of others, equal
treatment and consequences of collective violence.
3. Establishment
of a forum that deals with the factors responsible for collective violence also
dealing with the rehabilitation of victims.
4. Develop
idea of social cooperation and cohesion in the society.
5. Establishment
of good governance and strengthen Rule of Law
6. Strengthen
Fourth pillar of Democracy i.e Media. That means promote responsible and
positive journalism.
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSION
Collective
violence is the destructive aspect of human behaviour that brutally affect the
life of people, community and the society. It contains different types of
violent acts ranging from riot, revolt, rebellion, war to genocide guided by
socio- economic, political, psychological, ideological, cultural and religious
factors. Also role of media also plays a significant role in out-bursting
collective violence that can be very well explained in the Rwanda Genocide.
It is a
threat to human civilisation. It effects the life of humans in multi-facet way.
It does not only physically harm but also mentally harm the people and left
behind a deep scar in their minds. In addition, it had significant harm to law
and order, undermine peace, security and stability of the country. Ultimately
disrupt society. This is why it is important to have legal framework dealing
with collective violence.
The crime
not only effect the area where it occurs but have cross border impact on the
minds of people. It creates fear and terrorise people and it is necessary that
the government, International actors, members of society work together to
destroy this crime from the roots. That’s why laws both at National and
International level working together in addressing the issue of collective
violence. And try to make the society more peaceful and harmonious and a better
place to live.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Books / Journal
-
K. Singh, Mano majra
56 (New York: Grove Press, 1st edn., 1956)
-
B.R. Nayar,
“Violence and crime in India : A Quantitative Analysis” 71 APSR 1715-1716
(1977)
-
Anthony B. Zwi; Richard Garfield; Alessandro
Loretti, “Collective Violence” NCJRS 213-239 (2002).
-
S.L
Pomerantz, “FBI and Terrorism” 56 NCJRS 14-17 (1987)
-
Karl W. Deutsch, “Political Community and the North
Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical
Experience” 63 AHR 375-376 (1958)
-
Pooja Bakshi, “Communal Riots in Gujarat: Examining
State Power and Production of Marginality in the Attempt to Constitute the
Past” 50 EPW 63-70 (2015)
-
Christophe Jaffrelot, “Communal Riots in Gujarat:
The State at Risk?” 17 SAI 5 (2003)
-
John S. Conway, “The Holocaust and the Historians” 450 AAPSS
153-164 (1980)
- Statutes
-
Indian Penal Code, 1860
-
Rome statute of the International Criminal Court,
2002
-
Universal Declaration of Human Right, 1948
-
International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, 2002
-
Unlawful
Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967
-
The
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime on Genocide,1948
-
National
Security Act, 1980
- Website
[1] Anthony B. Zwi; Richard Garfield; Alessandro
Loretti, “Collective Violence” NCJRS 213-239 (2002).
[14]
An Empirical Look To The Arab Spring: Causes And Consequences available at :
https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/tjir/v13i1/f_0033740_27513.pdf (Last
visited on Aug 30, 2023)
[15] William
M. Salter, “The Russian
Revolution” 17 UCP 301-316 (1907)
[18]
Karl W. Deutsch, “Political Community and the North Atlantic Area:
International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience” 63 AHR 375-376
(1958)
[20] The
world reflects on Rwanda Genocide
available at : https://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/historical-background.shtml
(Last Modified July, 2004)
[21] Pooja Bakshi, “Communal Riots in
Gujarat: Examining State Power and Production of Marginality in the Attempt to
Constitute the Past” 50 EPW 63-70 (2015).
[22] Christophe Jaffrelot, “Communal Riots in Gujarat: The
State at Risk?” 17 SAI 5 (2003)
[24]
International Criminal Tribunal Rwanda, available at:
https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal (last
visited on Sept 5, 2023)
[27] National Security
Act, s. 3.
[33] Universal
Declaration of Human Right, Article 3; and International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, Article 6
[34] Universal
Declaration of Human Right, Article 4; and International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, Article 8
[35] Universal
Declaration of Human Right, Article 5; and International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, Article 7
[36]
Universal Declaration of Human Right, Article 6; and International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, Article 16
Article Information
COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE: ORIGIN AND TYPES BY: AAKANKSHA CHANDRA
Authors: AAKANKSHA CHANDRA
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/04/12
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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