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ANALYZING THE UNDERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN LEARDERSHIP AND POLITICAL REPRESENTATION IN INDIA. By: Mehak. M
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ANALYZING THE UNDERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN LEARDERSHIP AND POLITICAL REPRESENTATION IN INDIA.
College/ institution: Saveetha School
of Law, SIMATS. Year: 4th year
Course: BBA.LL.B (hons) Mobile
Number; 7904699218
1. ABSTRACT:
Gender equality remains a cornerstone
of inclusive governance, yet the underrepresentation of women in leadership and
political roles in India persistently challenges this aspiration. This research
paper critically examines the multifaceted issue of women's underrepresentation
in these vital spheres. Through an exploration of historical context, systemic
challenges, and societal norms, this study sheds light on the underlying
factors that contribute to this gender gap. In the realm of politics, women's
participation in parliamentary roles is alarmingly low, with barriers to entry
ranging from deeply entrenched gender norms to limited access to resources and
networks. Women’s representation in India’s Parliament is a main rhythmical way
to judge progress in bridging neuter inequities in the country.The
representation of women in the Indian Parliament is an important metric for
assessing progress in overcoming gender inequalities in the country. India has
a female population of 662.9 million and is the largest and one of the most
resilient parliamentary democracies in the world. As the country attains 77
years of independence, this paper provides a historical overview of advances in
women's representation in Parliament over the past few decades. It compares women's
parliamentary representation with their share of legislative positions at lower
levels. It notes that despite the impressive increase in female voter turnout,
creating scope for women's participation in electoral politics has been a slow
process due to deep-rooted structural constraints. It is argued that
institutional change coupled with socio-economic emancipation holds the key to
increasing women's participation in political elections.
KEYWORDS: Gender disparity,
underrepresentation, Indian politics, leadership, parliamentary roles,
legal fraternity, gender equality, diversity.
2.
INTRODUCTION:
A truly representative democracy
seeks adequate representation of women in politics.[2]
Although representative governments have increased around the world in recent
decades, women's participation remains low. According to UN Women, as of
September 2022, there were 30 women elected heads of state and/or government in
28 countries (out of a total of 193 UN member states). This is despite
concerted, multiple efforts recently to promote women's empowerment and
Improving gender equality. Legislative representation is fundamental to
political empowerment and enables participation in the legislative process.
Legislation plays a crucial role in stimulating debate and discussion on
various aspects of governance and in holding the government accountable. The
representation of women in national parliaments is a key indicator of the
extent of gender equality in parliamentary politics. India is the largest and
one of the most resilient parliamentary democracies in the world with a female
population of 662.9 million. This makes India an important case study for
women's parliamentary representation. This article examines how, if at all,
women's representation in the Indian Parliament has improved since
independence.
The paper begins by underscoring the
need for gender equality in political representation and setting out the
international and national constitutional and legal obligations to achieve it.
The change in women's representation in the Indian Parliament since
independence is then discussed and compared to their share of seats in state
parliaments and local self-government bodies. Attention is drawn to the
dichotomy between the rapid increase in women's participation as voters in
elections and other political activities and the slow increase in women's
representation in Parliament. The third section examines the intersection of
institutional and sociocultural factors that impede greater representation of
women in parliament. The paper concludes with an overview of specific
institutional reforms that could improve women's representation in
parliamentary politics.
As of May 2022, the global average of female representation in national
parliaments was 26.2 percent.[3] The representation of women in Asia also varies, with South Asian countries performing worse than the rest. For example, IPU data from May 2022 showed that the proportion of women was 34 percent in
Nepal, 21 percent in Bangladesh, 20 percent in Pakistan, 17 percent in Bhutan and 5 percent in Sri Lanka. In India, the
proportion of women in the Lok Sabha
(lower house) is slightly below 15 percent.
? OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
? To analyze
the representation of women in politics since independence.
? Identify the key barriers
and challenges that hinder women's
entry and advancement in leadership and politics.
?
Examine the impact
of gender imbalance on governance, policies,
and societal development.
?
To explore where there’s a need for reservation.
2.1.
Historical Gender Inequality in
Politics
Proportionate political
representation of all populations is a fundamental ethos of modern
constitutional democracy. Women, who constitute almost one-half of the world’s
population[4] (49.58
percent), have historically been politically marginalised in both developed and
developing nations. From the mid-19th century onwards, however, social
movements have succeeded in effecting widespread reforms. The charter of the
United Nations Organization (UNO, started in 1945) supported women’s rights.
Buttressed by the feminist movements of the 1960s and ‘70s, the UN General
Assembly in 1979 adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), often considered as an International Bill
of Rights for women. In the Convention, Article 7 upholds women’s right to hold
political and public office.
Years later, in 2000, UN member
states adopted the Millennium Declaration and set out eight Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) to be achieved by 2015, which included promoting
gender equality. In January 2016, the initiative was expanded to pursue 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), of which Goal 5 aims to achieve gender
equality and empower all women and girls and the full and effective participation
of women and equal rights Opportunities for leadership positions at all levels
of decision-making in political, business and public life. Political scientists
have outlined the benefits of increasing women's participation in
representative institutions. Anne Phillips (2017) has noted that women bring
diverse skills to politics and are role models for future generations; they
appeal to gender justice; and their involvement in politics facilitates the
representation of women's specific interests in state politics and creates
conditions for a revitalized democracy that bridges the gap between
representation and participation. Many years earlier, Hannah Pitkin (1967) had
discussed two forms of political representation: descriptive and substantive,
where descriptive involves an accurate account of all communities that are part
of the polity, and substantive refers to tangible political outcomes of such
representation. Emanuela Lombardo and PetraMeier (2014) have argued that there
is a third form of representation, namely the symbolic, which represents not
only the visual dimension expressed through symbols, but also a discursive
dimension found in metaphors and stereotypes, which are often expressed in
political discourses. A combination of all three dimensions of political
representation is crucial to ensure democratic participation and
transformation, especially by and for women.
2.2.
Women ’s Political Participation in India:
India has a history of
marginalization and exploitation of women shaped by patriarchal social
structures and mindsets. Beginning in the 19th century, social reform movements
succeeded in promoting the well-being and empowerment of women. The Indian
freedom movement, starting with the swadeshi movement in Bengal (1905-08) also
witnessed the impressive participation of women[5], who organised
political demonstrations and mobilised resources, as well as occupied
leadership positions in those movements.[6]
After India's independence, the constitution guaranteed equal status for men
and women in all political, social and economic fields. Part III of the
Constitution guarantees the basic rights of men and women. The policy
principles of state policy ensure economic empowerment by ensuring equal pay
for equal work for men and women, decent working conditions and maternity
relief.
Any Indian citizen who is registered
as a voter and is over 25 years of age may vote in elections to the Lower
House of Parliament (Lok Sabha) or the State
Legislative Assemblies; for the Upper House (Rajya Sabha) the minimum age is 30 years. Articles
325 and 326 of the Constitution
guarantee political equality and the right to vote. There are constitutional provisions for reserving seats for enlisted
castes and enlisted
tribes in Parliament and Legislative Assemblies. A proposal to provide for a similar
quota for women was rejected
when the constitution was drafted. It was opposed
by leading Indian women's organizations and the ruling party, Congress, who believed women should be elected on an
equal footing with men. Later, in 1974, the report of the Committee
on the Status of Women in India advocated for greater representation of women in political
institutions and again brought the issue of seat reservation for women to the fore. Then, in 1992, the
73rd and 74th Amendments provided for a single
amendment reservation. Proposals to legislate the reservation of seats
for women in parliament and state assemblies
first emerged in 1997, but they have met with much opposition, and no such law has
yet been passed.[7]
At the same
time, India has taken a number of steps to empower women in other areas such as marriage and employment. For example, the
Supreme Court has granted daughters in Hindu
families the equal status of joint heirs, giving them inheritance
rights. It was also decided that women
officers in the Army should be entitled to permanent positions of service and
leadership in all services other than
combat and that they must be considered for them regardless of their length of service. The minimum age for
girls to marry was recently raised from 18 to 21.
2.2.1.
Taking stock of progress:
There are three main parameters to
assess the status of women's participation in politics in India: how many of
them go to vote; How many of them vote in elections and how many of them are
elected to legislatures at the national, state and local levels. A fourth
parameter is the participation of women in electoral and other political
activities as party staff and supporters.
2.2.2.
Women as voters:
After independence, the participation
of women as voters was not immediately enthusiastic. However, it gradually
increased; In the last Lok Sabha election in 2019, almost as many women voted
as men – a turning point in India's progress towards gender equality in
politics, which has been dubbed the Quiet Revolution of Self-Empowerment. The
increased participation, particularly since the 1990s, is due to several
factors. First, higher levels of literacy among women and their greater
participation in the workforce have contributed to increasing their political
awareness and confidence to cast their vote.[8]
Second, the growth of electronic media and the digital revolution have expanded
the reach of electoral rights awareness campaigns conducted by both the
Electoral Commission of India and other organizations. Third, the Electoral
Commission has taken institutional measures to encourage women to vote, such as
ensuring security by protecting against intimidation and creating separate
queues for women in voting booths. Female-friendly pink booths will be set up
where all staff, including election officials, police and security personnel,
will be female. Increased security measures at elections over the years have
largely reduced violence and voter intimidation on election day, encouraging
women to participate.
Fourth, reservations for women in
panchayats and municipalities have also helped enhance female inclusion in the
structures of power at the local level.[9]
Fifth, political reforms, technological transformation, and notions of women’s
rights are gaining momentum and encouraging more women to vote.[10]
Women in India run in two types of
constituencies. First, as argued in a paper by economists Mudit Kapoor and
Shamika Ravi, female candidates are more likely to run in constituencies that
have a relatively higher proportion of males. Second, the Francescas study
found that women tended to compete more often for places reserved for certain
castes and tribes. A possible explanation for the first pattern could be that
women prefer to stand in constituencies where their numbers are smaller because
winning such seats is crucial to making their voices heard. One reason for the
second phenomenon could be the increasing pressure on parties to nominate more
female candidates. It is easier for parties to remove male incumbents from
reserved seats and replace them with women, as the male politicians from the SC
and ST communities are perceived as more expendable than other male incumbents.
Overall, however, the number of female candidates in parliamentary elections
has increased over time (Figure 1 below shows) their proportion remains low
compared to male candidates. In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, less than 9
percent of the 8,049 candidates were women.
3.
ANALYSIS:
3.1.
FIGURE 1:
Number of Women Candidates in the Lok Sabha Elections (1957-2019)
(Source abstracted from: Statista Data on 2019 Lok Sabha election)[11]
The underrepresentation of women in
the Lok Sabha, with only 78 out of 719 women candidates becoming Members of
Parliament in the 2019 elections, highlights a critical need for increased
women's representation. This gender gap, constituting just 14% of total seats,
has far-reaching implications. Firstly, a diverse Parliament is essential to
accurately reflect the nation's demographics and adequately address
gender-specific concerns. With women comprising nearly half of India's
population, their experiences and perspectives deserve active representation.
Secondly, inclusive decision-making benefits from diverse viewpoints. Women's
underrepresentation leads to policy blind spots and missed opportunities for
gender-sensitive legislation. Encouraging women's participation is not only a
democratic imperative but also aligns with global commitments towards gender
equality and empowerment.
3.1.1. Women's Representation in the Indian
Parliament:
Representation of women in
parliament Parliaments and state legislatures not only make laws and hold the executive branch accountable,
but also claim to represent different constituencies, identity groups and interests. In parliamentary democracies like
India, membership of Parliament is
also a requirement for participation in government as a minister. Although the
participation of women as voters in
elections has increased significantly, data on women's representation in both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha suggest
that the proportion of female MPs has remained low compared to their male counterparts (see Tables 4 and 5). The
highest proportion of women MPs elected
to the Lok Sabha to date was in the 2019 election, accounting for less than 15
percent of total membership. The
number of female candidates and members of parliament varies greatly between states and parties. Currently, Lok
Sabha (17th), Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have the most women MPs. In terms of proportion, 14 percent of all Lok
Sabha MPs in UP are women, and in
Bengal the proportion is 26 percent.
Among
political parties, Congress nominated 54 women candidates in 2019 (12.9 percent
of all candidates who he put up that
year); and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) had 53 women (12.6 percent).
Overall, UP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Bihar states
had significant numbers of
women running that year. In terms of percentage, Goa and Manipur had the
highest proportion of female
candidates, accounting for 17 percent of all candidates in each of the two states. In the same year, parties such as
the Biju Janata Dal (BJD) in Odisha and the TMC in West Bengal fielded more women in the LokSabha polls: in Odisha,
the BJD nominated 33 percent of the
candidates,44 and the TMC in Bengal 41 percent.
Women's
representation in the Rajya Sabha was slightly lower than in the Lok Sabha, not
yet surpassing 13 percent of total
House membership, according to 2020 data. In state legislatures, or vidhan
sabhas, average representation is
even lower, typically under 10
percent.
3.2.
What are
the reasons for low representation?
?
Gender stereotypes: The role of managing household
activities is traditionally assigned to women. Women should be encouraged to break out of their stereotyped roles and participate in the country's
decision-making process.
?
Competition: Politics is like every other field, a
competitive field. At the end of the day, women
politicians are also their competitors. Many politicians fear that if women are reserved, their seats could be reserved
alternately for female candidates, thereby losing any chance of even fighting for their seats.
?
Lack of political
networks: The lack of openness
in political decision-making and undemocratic
internal processes pose a challenge for all newcomers, but especially for women, who tend to lack insider knowledge
or political networks.
?
Lack of resources: Due to their low proportion of
India's internal political party structure, women fail to gather resources and support to advance their political constituency. Women do not receive sufficient financial support from political
parties to participate in elections.
?
Social conditioning: They must accept the dictates
imposed on them and bear the burden of
society. Public opinion determines not only how many female candidates win a
general election, but also directly
and indirectly how many are considered and nominated for office.
3.3. FIGURE 2
Women’s Representation in the Lok Sabha
(Source: Election Commission of India)
According to
data compiled by the IPU, of which India is a member, women make up 14.44% of all Lok Sabha members. According to the latest
data from the Election Commission of India (ECI):
As of October 2021: Women make up 10.5% of the total Members of Parliament. The scenario for women members of Legislative
Assemblies (MLAs) in all state parliaments in India is even worse, with the national average being a paltry 9%. In
the last 75 years of independence, women's representation in Lok Sabha has increased
by less than 10%. In terms of electoral representation, India has fallen several places in the
Inter-Parliamentary Union's global ranking
of women's parliamentary presence, from 117 after the 2014 election to
143 in January 2020. India currently
lags behind Pakistan (106), Bangladesh (98) and Nepal (43) and off Sri Lanka (182).
3.4. FIGURE 3:
Women’s Representation in the Rajya Sabha
(Source: Election Commission of India)
3.4.1.
Women as Political Workers:
Surveys by the Center for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) show that women's
involvement in political activities such as attending
election rallies, conducting door-to-door campaigns, distributing election pamphlets, and fundraising of election money has increased over the past three decades.
However, this participation remains low overall. This suggests that higher levels of education, political
awareness and exposure to public life have led to greater political
mobilization of women as voters, but various institutional and
structural challenges continue to
prevent them from fully participating in many other aspects of electoral
politics.
3.5.
Achievements
in women's participation in local politics:
In India, at the local level, there is a third tier of government in the
form of communes or local government bodies in towns and cities,
and PRIs in rural areas. The 73rd and
74th amendments to the Constitution were introduced in 1992 to provide new opportunities for local level planning,
effective implementation and oversight of various social and economic
development programs in the country.
One of the most important
and transformative aspects
of these amendments was the provision
that one-third of the
total seats in local elections should be reserved
for women. Studies have shown that politics has resulted in a phenomenal
increase in women's political
participation at the local level. Since then, 20 of India's 28 states have increased the reservation to 50 percent.
The challenge of proxy representation has also decreased, as women elected
to office have largely been controlled by their male family members.
Grassroots initiatives undertaken by both governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have helped
improve the performance of elected female political leaders.
3.6.
Government Initiatives and Future Recommendations:
The Indian government has introduced several
significant measures to address the gender disparity in political representation:
3.6.1.
Women's
Reservation Bill 2008: This proposed constitutional amendment seeks to
reserve one-third of seats in the Lok
Sabha and state legislative assemblies for women. Passing this bill would provide a formal and structured
pathway to amplify women's voices in the political arena.
3.6.2.
Reservation
in Panchayati Raj Institutions: Article 243D of the Constitution
mandates at least one-third
reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions. This move recognizes the importance of women's participation at the
grassroots level, fostering their leadership skills and political engagement.
3.6.3. Parliamentary Committee on Empowerment of Women: Established in 1997, this committee
transcends party lines to focus on women's empowerment. It serves as a platform
to prioritize and advocate for
policies that uplift women in politics and leadership.
3.7.
Future Recommendations:
3.7.1.
Passage of Women's Reservation Bill: To
strengthen women's representation, the government
should prioritize passing the Women's Reservation Bill, reserving 33% of seats in Parliament and state legislative
assemblies for women. This step would ensure
women's substantive participation in decision-making processes.
3.7.2.
Utilizing Local Governance Experience:
Women who have excelled as sarpanches and in local governance possess
invaluable experience. Their transition to state assemblies and Parliament can
infuse fresh perspectives and expertise into higher levels of governance.
3.7.3.
Mandatory Quotas for Political Parties: Encouraging all recognized political
parties to allocate a minimum agreed percentage of tickets to women
candidates in State Assembly and
Parliamentary elections can drive systemic change. This approach ensures proactive
efforts to address the gender gap.
3.7.4.
Gender-Sensitive Policies: Political parties should adopt gender-sensitive
policies that prioritize women's leadership development and offer mentorship opportunities. Building a pipeline
of capable women leaders can pave the way for greater representation.
3.7.5.
Media Campaigns and Awareness: Promoting awareness
campaigns that emphasize the importance of women's
participation in politics can help change societal attitudes and perceptions. Media can play a crucial
role in highlighting women's accomplishments and potential.
The
women’s reservation Bill cannot wait any longer. With ample evidence of women
leaders making a mark, India ought
not to overlook the pivotal role women can play in nation building and development. While women have broken
through the glass ceiling of patriarchy in all areas, politics is where women find it
hardest to find a place. While India gained the right to vote
early, women still face significant barriers to political participation
and have no right to govern. It is disheartening to see that even 75 years after
independence, Parliament still lacks substantial representation for half the population and women hold only 14% of the
seats. It is time to recognize the
systematic exclusion of women from politics and to call for action to create a
fairer political landscape.
Women played a
crucial role in India's struggle for independence by organizing demonstrations, leading rallies and raising awareness.
There were also numerous female representatives in the Constituent Assembly. Just a decade ago, three of India's
largest states, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, were in the spotlight
for being led by female prime ministers. While Sushma Swaraj led the opposition in the Lok Sabha, Sonia Gandhi was
both President of the Congress Party
and Chair of the United Progressive Alliance. Around the same time, India also
had its first female President,
Pratibha Patil.
4.
OTHER AREA: GENDER DISPARITY IN INDIAN SUPREME COURT.
In the 73-year history of the Indian Supreme Court, the glaring
underrepresentation of women judges stands out starkly. Among the 268 judges
who have graced the highest judicial bench, only
11 have been women. This paltry representation translates to a mere 4% of all
Supreme Court judges, underscoring a profound gender disparity that resonates through
the echelons of the judiciary. The absence of a woman Chief
Justice of India further highlights the gender
imbalance in the uppermost echelons of the judiciary. Throughout its
history, the Supreme Court has not
witnessed a woman holding the highest judicial position. This dearth of women
at the pinnacle of the Indian
judicial system not only symbolizes a missed opportunity for diversity and inclusivity but also points to systemic
barriers that hinder women's progression to leadership roles.
Several factors contribute to this
stark underrepresentation. Firstly, traditional gender roles and societal
expectations have historically limited women's access to legal education and
practice, thereby creating a smaller pool of eligible candidates. Additionally,
deeply embedded patriarchal norms within the legal profession might influence
appointment processes, perpetuating the status
quo. Furthermore, unconscious biases
could subtly influence decision-making regarding judicial appointments,
favoring male candidates over equally qualified female ones. The repercussions
of such a glaring gender gap in the Supreme Court are multifaceted. The absence
of diverse perspectives, including women's experiences and viewpoints,
undermines the court's ability to address the full spectrum of legal and social
issues. It might also impact the quality of judgments in cases involving
women's rights and gender-related matters.
Addressing this gender disparity
requires multifaceted efforts.
Encouraging more women to pursue legal education and practice is crucial. Additionally, transparent and gender-neutral appointment procedures should be adopted to ensure that merit
is the sole criterion for elevation to the judiciary. Mentoring programs and affirmative action
could also help bridge the gap, fostering
a more inclusive and diverse bench. In conclusion, the fact that only 4% of all
Supreme Court judges in its 73-year
history have been women is indicative of a larger issue that needs urgent attention. A more representative
judiciary not only upholds principles of equality but also ensures a more comprehensive and nuanced
interpretation of the law. Through targeted efforts and a commitment to inclusivity, the Indian judiciary
can take a significant step toward addressing this gender disparity and
fostering a more equitable legal landscape.
5.
CONCLUSION:
The organic shift towards opening up spaces for women in Indian parliamentary
politics has been slow. Given the deep structural constraints that hamper progress
in women's political
participation, institutional change can usher in inclusive politics,
albeit only to a limited extent. Another imperative is social transformation. As mentioned in this paper, better
educational opportunities for women, their financial stability, the relative reduction
in social prejudice
combined with greater media awareness have compelled political parties
to create spaces for women's participation. As the number of female voters increases, political parties have developed pro-female welfare policies in recent years to win their voter support. As the movement
for women's political
emancipation gains momentum, women's organizations and networks
within political parties
and civil society
must continue to help them assert their interests and presence in the larger political and social landscape. Political mobilization of women can be pushed towards imperative institutional
reform towards greater representation of women in India's Parliament and provincial assemblies. More women are needed on these platforms to transform the discourse on
governance and policy making and move India towards a truly inclusive and
representative democracy.
[1] B.B.A.LL.B(Hons), 4th year, Saveetha School of Law, Saveetha Institution of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Mobile No. 7904699218, Email ID: mehakrakhecha@gmail.com.
[2] Barbara J Nelson and Najma Chowdhury (eds) Women and Politics Worldwide. London: Yale University Press, 1994.
[3] IPU Parline: Global data on National Parliaments, 2022, https://data.ipu.org/womenranking?month=5&year=2022
[4] “Gender ratio in the world”, Statistics Times, August 2021, https://statisticstimes.com/demographics/world-sex-ratio.php#:~:text=Gender%20ratio%20in%20
the%20World&text=The%20population%20of%20females%20in,million%20 more%20males%20than%20females.
[5] Janaki Nair, Women and Law in Colonial India: A Social History. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1996.
[6] Radha Kumar, The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights and Feminism in India 1800–1990. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1997; Vina Mazumdar (Ed.) (1979) Symbols of Power: Studies on the Political Status of Women.
[7] Praveen Rai, “Women’s Participation in Electoral Politics in India,” South Asia Research Vol. 37(1): 58–77, 2017.
[8] Milan Vaishnav, “Indian Women are Voting More Than Ever. Will They Change Indian society?”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, November 8, 2018,
[9] Sanjay Kumar (eds). Women Voters in Indian Elections: Changing Trends and Emerging Patterns, Routledge, 2022.
[10] Rai, “Women’s Participation in Electoral Politics in India”.
[11] Statista Data on 2019 Lok Sabha election, https://www.statista.com/statistics/993595/india-states-with-most-women-parliamentarians/.
Article Information
ANALYZING THE UNDERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN LEARDERSHIP AND POLITICAL REPRESENTATION IN INDIA. By: Mehak. M
Authors: Mehak. M
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2023/09/04
- Issue 7
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International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
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