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AERIAL TERRORISM AND OTHER CRIMES: AN ANALYSIS THROUGH RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
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AERIAL TERRORISM AND OTHER CRIMES: AN ANALYSIS THROUGH
RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
AUTHORED BY - ANISHA. M[1]
ABSTRACT
Aerial Terrorism is one of the many
forms of terrorism. Aerial terrorism and aerial crimes range from misdemeanours
in an aircraft to much larger crimes with an almost genocidal impact on
humanity. One among the many tragic incidents like the 9/11 World Trade Centre
attack gives a perspective as to how dangerous aerial terrorism really is. On
the other hand, while many legislations, policies and conventions are in place
to regulate other crimes on aircrafts within the sovereign space and ideally
uncharted civil air space, problems still arise between different countries
with respect to jurisdiction and extradition of criminals.
The first attempt on framing a
legislation towards the Aviation laws began with the advent of The Convention
on Crimes and Certain Other Acts Committed Onboard an Aircraft, otherwise known
as The Tokyo Convention in 1963. Article 3 in Chapter II of this Convention
elucidates a general idea of applicable jurisdiction for crimes on aircrafts.
The Tokyo Convention goes into further detail about other provisions like the
Powers of an Aircraft Commander and the Powers and Duties of the State on
criminal incidents onboard an aircraft. Following the Tokyo Convention, The
Convention on Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (The Hague Hijacking
Convention) in 1970 and the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
against the Safety of Civil Aviation (The Sabotage Convention or the Montreal
Convention) aimed to fill in the gaps of the Tokyo Convention by addition of
more categories of crimes and extending enforcement not only on the aircrafts
but also in the airports. Even with the existing level of crime there were many
problems arising on the lines of jurisdiction and extradition with the
involvement of National Laws. These National Laws tend to be inconsistent with
each other creating an impasse between two or more countries in some cases
which consequently obstructs justice.
The exponential growth of technology
in the past decades has conjured a whole new realm of crimes. However, the
legal framework remains in an outdated position leaving a lot of questions
unanswered. Different scenarios may arise such as what the legal implication
would be when a situation like the 9/11 attack arises, but the aircraft is
unmanned and controlled remotely. In such a case, the jurisdiction and
extradition might become a major issue between the country which hosts the
criminal and the country which sustained the damage. There are many other cases
where the technological advancement is irrelevant and yet the question remains.
For instance, what happens when a crime is committed by a citizen of one
country against a citizen of another country in a layover airport whose
country’s interest is not directly hindered by that crime. Although
jurisdictional provisions might exist in respective National Laws and momentary
extradition treaties are drawn up between countries, an ideal International
Jurisdiction would be an optimal solution. Any crime that is associated with an
aircraft or that happens on the civil air space could potentially be tried in
the International Criminal Court. Therefore, this research paper focuses on a
brief analysis to identify the gaps in the existing legislations for the aerial
regulations and suggests trying criminals in the International Criminal Court
to fully resolve the jurisdictional and extradition issues. It also attempts to
analyse the positive and negative aspects of such a jurisdiction.
INTRODUCTION
Aerial terrorism is one of the most
grievous forms of terrorism and involves instruments like airplanes and drones
to cause destruction or sabotage. Aerial terrorism is particularly malicious
since it causes great damage and threat to the national and international security,
and it could potentially result in catastrophic damages to both aviation
infrastructure and passengers on a relatively large scale. This form of
terrorism occurs in various ways with bombings, hijacking and attacks on
aircrafts and airports being some common examples and their motivations ranging
from political, ideological, or religious extremism to plain criminal intent.
Thereby, these acts of terrorism are typically conducted by organized groups or
even individuals in some cases. Moreover, these attacks could either be by conventional
methods with the use of explosives and such or sophisticated new age methods
like cyber attacks or unmanned aircrafts which are remotely piloted, or a
missile set to attack from a longer range with registered coordinates. Hence,
it is safe to say that aerial terrorism is an evolving threat and is an
important area which requires a lot of safety protocols and precautionary
systems. As a response, various nations and international organizations have
created a vast network of legislations and intelligence arrangements to enhance
and ensure aviation security. Some of these legislations include the Convention
on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft otherwise known
as the Tokyo Convention and the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
Against the Safety of Civil Aviation or the Montreal Convention, in addition to
various national laws and regulations covering its own jurisdiction of civil
air space. Even with these conventions in place, the aftermath of some
traumatizing incidents like the 9/11 attacks, forced the national and
international organizations to take a good hard look at these legislations and
reinforce better safety mechanisms like scrutinizing passenger screening,
strict customs regulations governing the transport of hazardous and dangerous
materials etc. However, aerial terrorism remains a simmering threat to
international peace and sometimes these terrorists find a way to circumvent
existing security measures. Therefore, these conventions need to be airtight
with absolutely no gaps or ambiguity with clear instructions and protocols to
ensure that the Governments and enforcement agencies have a concise process and
know how to respond to any given situation to ensure safety to their aviation
instruments and personnel. All the stakeholders must work together to develop a
precise legislation for this purpose.
Aerial crimes on the other hand, are
a different category which are characterized as illegal activities that generally
occur within the aviation sector. These
crimes range from smuggling contraband to unauthorized intrusions, and they are
usually not done to necessarily cause targeted harm to anyone but are still
activities that breach the law. Aerial crimes pose a threat to aviation
security and the authorities tend to have a profound system in place to address
and prevent these kinds of criminal activities through surveillance, regulation,
and enforcement efforts.
HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
The international bodies and
instruments had to evolve over time in response to the correspondingly evolving
threats to the aviation security. There had to be conventions and legislations
in place to keep the threats in check, to regulate the aerial activities and to
keep the peace in the aviation sector. The historical progression of some of
the key conventions and agreements in this regard are as follows:
Ø 1933 - ROME CONVENTION
Also known as the Convention for the
Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation was one of
the first steps taken towards addressing aerial terrorism.[2]
The objectives of this convention were to curb any acts of piracy or
interference in the civil aviation space. This Convention is deemed to be of
high significance since it set the stage for future developments on this
accord.
Ø 1944 – INTERNATION CIVIL AVIATION
ORGANIZATION
The International Civil Aviation
Organization was established in the year 1944 with its headquarters in
Montreal, Canada. It has been an important body in the line of Aviation
security and defence. It has time and again been updated with the emergence of
conventions and treaties and the increasing risk of crimes in the sector. ICAO's Annex 17[3],
titled "Security”, has set global standards and practices enhancing the
safety measures during instances of interference.
Ø 1963 - TOKYO CONVENTION
The Convention on Offences and
Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, otherwise known as the Tokyo Convention,
marked a major milestone in aviation safety. It was the first international
agreement in the domain and specifically targeted acts committed on aircrafts
such as hijacking and sabotage, to name a few and criminalized them. It also
established clear statutes for jurisdiction and extradition procedures with
them being the major concerns when it comes to international flights across
international borders.
Ø 1971 – MONTREAL CONVENTION
Montreal convention or the Convention
for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation was
said to be based on the standards set by the Tokyo Convention. It attempted to
fill up the gaps of the Tokyo Convention by expanding its scope. It included
bombings and other such acts to be considered as criminal offences.[4] It
also emphasized that international cooperation was vital for aviation
security.
Ø 1988 – LOCKERBIE BOMBING
Preceding the infamous 9/11 attacks,
the bombing of a flight over Lockerbie, Scotland in the year 1988 was a tragic event
that pressed the need for a stronger and more efficient defence line.[5] It
also highlighted the need for a coordinated action against terrorism in civil
aviation on an international scale. Consequently, the United Nations Security
Council endorsed Resolution 748 which prompted the stated to accentuate their
security measures against aerial terrorism and crimes.
Ø 1999 - MONTREAL CONVENTION PROTOCOL
In 1999, a protocol was added to the
Montreal Convention of 1971 once again to expand the scope of offences. This
protocol included a wide range of criminal offences to keep in line with the
usage of new age technology in acts of terrorism. It administered the use of
weapons monitored and controlled remotely or otherwise and cyberattacks.[6]
Ø 2001 - THE SEPTEMBER 11 ATTACKS
Commonly known as the 9/11 attacks,
this incident was the saturation point for the whole world to acknowledge that
aerial terrorism is a much more serious issue that could cause damages
unmeasured and a befitting if not much stronger aviation security was
necessary. The aftermath of these attacks brought in many changes on the
legislative fronts and more defence mechanisms were employed globally in many
countries. But especially in the United States it gave rise to the
establishment of the United States Transportation Security Administration.[7]
The 9/11 attacks shook up the whole
world and it didn’t take much longer for the rest of the countries to realise that
if they didn’t develop their security measures, they would have to face a similar
situation. This incident therefore brought about changes in many countries and
paved the way for a more coordinated international effort towards aviation
security.
These events and conventions mark the
milestones in the progression of aviation security through legislation,
regulatory measures, and security protocols.
THE TOKYO
CONVENTION - 1963
The Tokyo Convention, or the
International Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to
International Civil Aviation was established in Tokyo, Japan on the 14th
of September 1963 and came into force on December 4th, 1969. This
treaty was created with the objective to prevent illegal acts on the aviation
sector. The convention covers and regulates acts that jeopardize the safety of
passengers, crew members and aircrafts in general[8].
It was created during the time when international aviation was more susceptible
to threats like hijacks and sabotage to combat such acts or events.
Objectives
The prime objectives of the Convention
include:
Ø To
criminalize the seizing or exercising or attempting to seize or exercise the
control of an aircraft during its flight i.e., hijacking.
Ø To require
all the parties to the treaty to make a coordinated effort to prevent and
supress any unlawful acts against the peaceful functioning of aircrafts within
the civil aviation space.
Ø To ensure
that any offenders duly face the legal sanctions be it by way of prosecution or
extradition and to meet the ends of justice.
Ø To provide
an extensive legislative structure covering the process of investigation and
prosecution of offences and offenders.
Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction becomes a crucial aspect
to be considered when it comes to the international civil aviation space. An ideal
procedure must be implemented to determine the jurisdictional aspects of a
crime, investigation, prosecution etc. The Tokyo Convention attempted to
establish jurisdictional boundaries for this purpose.
Ø Territorial Jurisdiction
When an unlawful act takes place on
an aircraft, in the airport, or within the territorial borders of the state
where the airport is situated, then that state is to have primary jurisdiction
to investigate, try and prosecute the offender.
Ø Nationality Jurisdiction
If an offender commits a crime in any
place away from his home state and if his state has jurisdiction regulations
regarding crimes committed abroad, then his state can claim the said
jurisdiction irrelevant of the place the crime was committed in. This principle
is brought about by countries to ensure that they can try and prosecute their
own citizens in their own nationality.
Section 4 of the Indian Penal Code is
titled Extension of Code to extra territorial offences. By this provision, any
citizen of India who commits a crime beyond its territorial borders and any
person who commits a crime in an aircraft or ship registered in India are
covered by the Indian Penal Code only.
Ø Dual Criminality
Whenever the extradition of an
offender comes into question, the Tokyo Convention requires that any given
offence must be recognized as a crime in the state that ideally exercises
jurisdiction and the state that requests that the offender be extradited. This
is the concept of Dual criminality.
Ø Hijacking of Ethiopian Airlines
Flight 961 in 1996
A flight in the Ethiopian Airlines
was hijacked by three individuals. They forced the pilots to crash the plane
into the Indian Ocean off the Comoros Islands. However, the hijackers were
captured and taken into custody in the Comoros islands. Dual criminality was
determined in this case since the act was considered criminal in both Ethiopia
and the Comoros.[9]
Ø Extraterritorial Jurisdiction
States may extend their jurisdiction
in some cases even if the offender is not a citizen of the state nor if the
offence takes place within the territorial borders of that state.
Extraterritorial jurisdiction is when such a state extends its jurisdiction
simply because the act or offence poses a threat to the national security of
that state, or the interests of that state are affected.
Ø Hijacking of Air France Flight 139 in
1976
An Air France Flight set out to
Israel was hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists. Majority of the
passengers and crew members were citizens of Israel.[10] Therefore,
in this case, Israel claimed extraterritorial jurisdiction and the hijackers
were captured in Uganda by Israeli special forces.
Extradition
Extradition is a legal and formal
procedure where one country agrees to surrender an individual who has committed
or alleged to have committed an offence to another country that requests that
the individual be tried and prosecuted under their jurisdiction. The Tokyo
convention having dealt with crimes in the international scope and their
corresponding jurisdiction did not specifically focus on elaborating on the
Extradition procedure. During the time of establishment, the jurisdiction
instructions put forth by the Convention were ideal enough but with each state
forming their own domestic laws, extradition became a complicated process.
While there is no standard international law on a definitive procedure for
extradition, extradition treaties are drawn up between countries as and when an
incident occurs that requires it. This might not always workout as a peaceful
negotiation between two countries and might even lead to conflicts and
disruption. Thereby the Tokyo Convention does not cover the procedure of extradition
in its scope leaving a large area untouched.
THE
MONTREAL CONVENTION - 1971
The Convention on the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, often referred to as the
Montreal Convention was drawn up in the year 1971 and had been since amended
several times to combat emerging concerns against the aviation security.
The Montreal Convention was built
upon the foundation laid down by the Tokyo Convention to widen its scope and
cover a broader range of offences and criminalise them. It included acts like
placing explosives and dangerous devices on an aircraft and penalised these
offences. It also included any act of violence that was committed on board an
aircraft that would endanger its safety.[11]
This convention recognizes that the
countries are independent bodies with their own legislative framework.
Therefore, it makes it obligatory for the states to establish their own terms
of jurisdiction and extradition over the crimes that happen in the civil
aviation space in addition to the principles of jurisdiction established by the
Tokyo Convention.[12]
It further highlights that prosecution of an offender shall be carried out
under the law of the state where the offender is found or the state under which
the aircraft is registered.
The Montreal Convention established
certain rules of extradition between the contracting states and attempted to
fill the gap left out in the Tokyo Convention. The rules are framed in a way
that the convention comes into effect only if there is no extradition treaty
already existent between two or more states and if it does exist, the process
of extradition takes place according to the law of the requesting state.[13]
It also has provisions for when a
dispute arises between two or more states regarding extradition or
interpretation and application of the terms of the Convention which was also
not covered by the Tokyo Convention. A dispute between two signatories shall be
handled by negotiation or at the request of one of the parties by way of
arbitration. If the dispute still hasn’t been resolved, then it can be taken up
to the International Court of Justice.[14]
This Convention further affirms that
aviation security must be a coordinated effort by all the states working
together. It points out that every signatory must undertake to offer maximum
assistance to a state in distress.[15]
The states must cooperate with each other during the process of investigation
and prosecution of offenders. This must also extend to facilities like sharing
intelligence information when need be, offering aid in legal proceedings and
offering the victims adequate support.
The Convention also reiterates that
every state should implement a wide range of security measures at airports and
aircrafts like screening of passengers and use of air marshals who can travel
incognito to take action if a necessary situation arises, to ensure utmost
aviation security.
THE
MONTREAL PROTOCOL
Protocol for the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation commonly
known as the Montreal Protocol was an addition to the Montreal Convention of
1971. This protocol was adopted in response to the manifestation of “Modern
terrorism” as a form of violence in international airports. A terrorist attack
in Rome airport in January 1986 insinuated the need for a contemporary
legislation to keep up with the emerging new forms of violence.[16] This protocol is not a separate entity apart
from the Montreal convention but merely supplementary to it. A country cannot
ratify the protocol without having ratified the original convention. The
protocol adds on more offences to be penalized by the convention known as
“Protocol offences” and these include committing intentional violent acts by
using a device or weapon which causes or is likely to cause serious injury or
death; or destroys or damages the facilities of an airport thereby disrupting
the services.[17] The
Protocol further adds on to Article 5 of the Convention which talks about
Jurisdiction and the amendment includes respective jurisdiction for the
Protocol offences mentioned in Article 2 of the Protocol. Since those offences
relate to violent acts committed in airports and related buildings and the
runways, the state where the airport stands will have prima facie jurisdiction.[18]
THE BEIJING
CONVENTION
The Beijing Convention on the Suppression
of Unlawful Acts relating to International Civil Aviation was adopted in 2010
and it became the most enhanced civil aviation law on the international scope.
Being built upon the Tokyo Convention and the Montreal Convention, the Beijing
Convention now covers a plethora of statutes overlooked by the former
conventions on the same subject making it the most comprehensive convention on
international civil aviation security.
As the older conventions included
traditional acts of terrorism such as hijacking, sabotage, and unlawful
interference, the Beijing convention extensively included cyberattacks and
similar acts of terrorism against aviation systems. It is one of the most notable
additions in the Beijing Convention. It acknowledged and recognized the growing
necessity of cyber security in addition to regular security and defence
measures and the use of communication and information technologies in aviation
security. Furthermore, it includes the usage of “BCN (Biological Chemical and
Nuclear) weapons” to cause any kind of damage in an aircraft or an airport or
even just the possession of such weapons within the aviation premises to be a
punishable offence.[19]
The Convention also penalizes the secondary offenders who are not physically
present in the crime scene such as organizers, directors or abettors of the
offence.
The Convention also expands the
jurisdiction of the states to include the interests of the state where the
victim is a citizen. It encourages states to provide as much assistance as
possible to support the victims of an offence to help through processes of
repatriation, medical and psychological rehabilitation.[20] A
victim centric approach was a step up from the existing conventions. Therefore,
the Beijing Convention incorporated new factors to address the threats and
risks in the aviation sector and provides a comprehensive and extensive legal
framework for the same.
LIMITATIONS
TOKYO
CONVENTION
Ø The Tokyo
Convention has a limited scope since it focuses solely on offences committed on
board an aircraft and failed to be inclusive of security issues in the broader
aviation premises.
Ø It also
covers offences that are committed when the aircraft is on flight, neglecting
the jurisdiction on ground.
Ø Critics
argue that the penalties enumerated in the Convention are not befitting the
crimes.
Ø The
convention establishes the procedure for jurisdiction but fails to provide
guidelines when there is a grievance or dispute between two or more parties.
Ø Lacks
clarity on extradition provisions.
MONTREAL
CONVENTION
Ø Since the
Montreal Convention emphasizes dependence on the signatory countries’ domestic
legal framework, there might be discrepancies in enforcement, given the State
sovereignty and some states may struggle to implement its provisions
effectively.
Ø Considering
the State sovereignty once again, there might be conflicts in the extradition procedures.
Ø This
convention does not actively address modern threats like cyber or drone
attacks.
Ø The
convention requires signatory countries to ratify the same and hence might not
deter the non-signatory countries leading to imbalance and inequality and a gap
in the enforcement of legal procedures.
BEIJING
CONVENTION
Ø As all the
international conventions and treaties, this convention is no exception with
its ratification process and when a treaty requires to be ratified by the world
countries, not all countries would be willing to be part of it creating an
unequal landscape.
Ø Many
countries face difficulties with limited resources to enforce security measures
to combat threats to their aviation sector. This makes the implementation of
the convention difficult for those countries.
Ø As there
are technological advancements in the aviation defence line, the potential
offenders could get their hands on similar advanced technology and weapons
which makes it difficult for them to be covered by the Convention.
Ø This
convention aims to address offences across a single country’s borders and the
more parties involved, the more complicated the extradition process becomes.
Although there are redressal mechanisms in place when a dispute occurs, it
cannot be perceived as meeting the ends of justice.
SUGGESTIONS
AND CONCLUSION
Ø The
international conventions and treaties should be regularly reviewed and updated
to stay ahead of emerging threats and risk factors.
Ø International
cooperation is vital to ensure aviation security. The international bodies
should foster good cooperation between the countries to build a unified front
against these threats.
Ø There must
be a standard security procedure that is practiced in all countries to prevent
inconsistencies and negligence.
Ø Use
technology to its fullest capacity to identify and mitigate potential security
risks.
Ø Train
security personnel in the airports and aircrafts to recognize suspicious behaviour
by implementing behavioural analysis and act accordingly.
Ø Establish
robust crisis management techniques so when a situation arises, no time is
wasted on strategizing.
Ø Consider a
potential trial of all offences that happen outside of the express territorial
borders of a country or registered aircraft, in the International Criminal Court
in order to prevent complications of jurisdiction and extradition processes
which could pave way to a dispute between two or more countries.
Aviation safety is a global
responsibility that requires all the countries in the world to take a unified
action and combat against all possible hindrances that might occur. The aim is
to provide the staff and the passengers the highest level of security in
airports and aircrafts and to protect the country from a really intense and
unforeseen damage through aerial terrorism. Therefore, enhancing aviation
security measures by way of international conventions and domestic laws is
critical to ensure safe air travel and safety within the civil aviation space.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY SOURCES
STATUTES
I.
Indian Penal Code, 1860.
II.
Rome Convention, 1933.
III.
The Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 1971 – Montreal Convention.
IV.
The Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
relating to International Civil Aviation, 2010 – Beijing Convention.
V.
The International Convention on the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation, 1963 – Tokyo Convention
VI.
The Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence
at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, 1988 – Montreal Protocol.
SECONDARY SOURCES
ARTICLES
I.
Alex Auclair, “What happened during the
real life rescuer mission of the hijacked airplane in Operation Entebbe”,
Medium, Aug 20, 2021.
II.
Dave Roos, “5 Ways September 11 changed
America”, History, September 1, 2020.
III.
Paulina Villegas, “The Lockerbie bombing
created a global probe”, The Washington Post, Dec 11, 2022.
IV.
“The Rome Convention and its modernization”,
The Journal of the UN Philatelists, Vol 34 #2, April 2010.
INTERNET SOURCES
I.
https://acearchive.org/ethiopian-airlines-flight-961
II.
https://alexauclair.medium.com/what-happened-during-the-real-life-rescue-mission-of-the-hijacked-airplane-in-operation-entebbe-dfc2028e7bfc
III.
https://applications.icao.int/postalhistory/the_rome_convention_and_its_modernization.htm
V.
https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20974/volume-974-I-14118-english.pdf
IV.
https://www.history.com/news/september-11-changes-america
V.
https://www.icao.int/security/sfp/pages/annex17.aspx
VI.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/12/11/lockerbie-bombing-explainer-faq/
[1] Anisha. M, II Year LL.M., Central
Law College, Salem. Ph. 7094540980. E-mail: aniisha2411@gmail.com.
[2] The Rome Convention and its
modernization, The Journal of the UN Philatelists, Vol 34 #2, April 2010.
Available at:
https://applications.icao.int/postalhistory/the_rome_convention_and_its_modernization.htm
[3]
https://www.icao.int/security/sfp/pages/annex17.aspx
[4] Convention for the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 1971, Art. 1. 1(c)
[5] Paulina Villegas, The Lockerbie
bombing created a global probe, The Washington Post, Dec 11, 2022.
Available at : https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/12/11/lockerbie-bombing-explainer-faq/
[6] 2. Chapter Five, Protocol for the
suppression of unlawful acts of violence at airports serving international
civil aviation 1988 (‘Montreal Protocol’)
[7] Dave Roos, “5 Ways September 11
changed America”, History, September 1, 2020.
Available at: https://www.history.com/news/september-11-changes-america
[8] International Convention on the
Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation, 1963,
Article 1. 1(b)
[9]
https://acearchive.org/ethiopian-airlines-flight-961
[10] Alex Auclair, “What happened
during the real life rescuer mission of the hijacked airplane in Operation
Entebbe”, Medium, Aug 20, 2021.
Available at: https://alexauclair.medium.com/what-happened-during-the-real-life-rescue-mission-of-the-hijacked-airplane-in-operation-entebbe-dfc2028e7bfc
[11] Convention on the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 1971, Art. 1. 1 (a)
[12] Ibid. Art. 5
Available at: https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20974/volume-974-I-14118-english.pdf
[13] Ibid. Art 8
[14] Ibid. Art. 14
[15] Ibid. Art. 11
[16] Supra note. 5
[17] Protocol for the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation,
1988, Art 2.
[18] Ibid. Art 3.
[19] Administrative package for
ratification of or accession to the Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful
Acts relating to International civil aviation (Beijing convention, 2010), 3.
[20] Ibid.
Article Information
AERIAL TERRORISM AND OTHER CRIMES: AN ANALYSIS THROUGH RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
Authors: ANISHA. M
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2024/01/25
- Issue 7
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International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
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