Open Access Research Article
CLIMATE CHANGE: A DOUBLE BLOW TO INDIA’S GENDER STRUGGLE - By Safa Shameem and Sandhya S
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CLIMATE CHANGE: A DOUBLE
BLOW TO INDIA’S GENDER STRUGGLE
Safa Shameem and
Sandhya S*
ABSTRACT
Climate change endangers women’s lives more than it
does men’s. Women account for half of the world's population, making them one
of the most valuable human resources in both the organised and unorganised
sectors. However, they are also facing climate injustice. Natural catastrophes
have a particularly negative impact on women due to systemic disparities in
social, economic, and cultural status. Gender norms and responsibilities also
play an important role in determining vulnerability to the impacts of the
climate crisis. Women are frequently exploited, discriminated against, have
limited access to resources and lack representation in decision making. Women
participation in policy and politics are especially low in developing
countries. They are more likely than men to be impoverished and are also
subjected to systematic violence during times of unrest. Through this paper,
the authors have endeavoured to analyse how climatic variations worsens
existing gender disparities in relation to different sectors in India.
Key words: Climate change, women, health.
INTRODUCTION
Humans, for as long as they have inhabited the
earth, the only planet known to harbour life have altered their environments to
a considerable extent, both positively as well as negatively. As we lurch
into an uncertain future, we are all faced with the unprecedented challenge of
the irreversible climate system. Studies show that humans have dealt with
issues of climate change since the dawn of agriculture 10,000 years ago.
However, the impacts of climate risks affect different countries, in myriad
ways. It is particularly the developing countries that are more exposed to the
negative impacts of climate change. The disadvantaged groups among these
developing countries further suffer disproportionately. Various international
conventions have thus taken a holistic approach towards climate change by
involving sustainable usage of resources and mostly used in the
context of being environmentally conscious, the term ‘sustainability’ has
gained popularity exponentially in the past few decades. Sustainability is an
interdisciplinary approach that considers ecological, social and economic
dimensions recognising that all must be considered together to find lasting
prosperity.[1]
The United Nations regarded climate change as a
serious issue in the year 1992. From the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 to the Agenda
for Sustainable Development in 2015, world governments through international
agreements have been attempting to govern their nations with greener policies
and sustainable development frameworks. As of today, progress is being made in
various parts of the world, but actions to meet the Goals are not yet advancing
at the pace required. India is one of the 193 member states of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development which involves 17 interdisciplinary goals that the
members pledged to achieve by way of a 15-year plan. The Agenda in its last
decade focuses on tackling growing poverty, empowering women and girls and
addressing climate emergencies, all of which are interrelated where one cannot
be viewed independently by compromising on the other.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND GENDER
Climate change has been an urgent matter of concern
for a few decades around the globe, with its harsh ramifications deterring and
altering human existence and their way of life. Apart from the apparent
environmental and economic reverberations of this phenomenon, it plays a
catalytic role in aggravating social, cultural and political issues. It has
evolved through various generations and has had a far-reaching impact over the
lives of women. There’s no doubt that this planetary phenomenon has
impacted all, some more than others. However its consequences are being moulded
by persistent gender inequality.
Countries, especially developing, have been and
continue to combat gender-related issues by tackling various roots such as
literacy, oppressive cultural practices, etc. However, in developing countries
like India, policymakers fail to take into consideration how climate change and
its repercussions also play a crucial role as an inevitable stressor in
widening existing gender gaps. In such countries, with women and children
already being subject to discrimination pervasively, climate change and its
consequences on women and their status in society go unrecognised.
Predefined roles and restrictions imposed on women since time immemorial have made them vulnerable to numerous economic and social deficits. However, with sustainable development and green policies being the need of the hour, governments, while framing and implementing policies for sustainable growth, tend to overlook the correlation between women being subject to more discrimination and alarming global warming rates and its irreversible consequences. Studies have shown that women depend on natural resources more than men and now, due to its fast depletion and limited replenishing capabilities, women are repressed more in an already unequal community. Therefore, as polar caps melt and the resources dwindle, women are disproportionately affected. They account for 80% of those displaced by climate change.[2]
According to the World Economic Forum’s World
Gender Gap Report in 2021, India slipped 28 places and ranked 140th among 156
countries. The report states that among other factors, one of the prominent
driving factors is the decrease in the women-labour force participation rate,
which remains at 22.3%. Apart from socio-cultural oppression, developing
countries show very limited women representing the nation. In India, as of
February 2021, only 14.4% of seats at the Indian Parliament were held by women.[3]
This inadequacy in representation at the national level reflects poorly on the
country’s decision making and its policies, and thus, solutions to
fundamentally intersectional issues require a holistic perspective.
Women are more susceptible to health disorders
arising out of climate change, due to their economic and social disabilities.
Their lack of access to basic human resources in addition to societal barriers
further renders them vulnerable to the adverse effects of global heating.
SECTOR WISE ANALYIS
The impact of climate change across the three
sectors entirely reliant on natural resources for sustenance and commercial
purposes are discussed below.
Agriculture
The agriculture sector has been instrumental in
supporting the livelihoods of rural communities as people residing in rural
areas, particularly in India, are largely dependent on farming for income. It
is integrally tied to the realization of human rights, such as the right to
self-determination and access to food, among others. Agriculture provides a
living for around 58% of India’s population.[4]
These activities are significantly influenced by change in climatic conditions.
Crops and cattle are extremely susceptible to even modest climatic changes, and
developing countries, particularly those that rely on rain-fed agriculture seem
to be the hardest hit due to the variations in climate.
Women contribute considerably to the agricultural
sector in greater numbers than men, however, they still do not reap the
benefits of their work as it is regarded as financially unproductive, thus,
maintaining sustainable livelihoods in a deteriorating environment is a
gendered issue.
According to the periodic labour force survey 2020
report, around 85% of the agriculture workforce comprises women. They’re
responsible for producing up to 90% of rural population’s food.[5]
Reports also suggest that most rural women work more than 16 hours a day.
Taking care of the household, preparing meals, collecting resources and
labouring in the fields are all part of their work. Despite being a significant
contributor towards agriculture production, they face structural constraints in
terms of accessing basic natural resources. Further, when food is scarce due to
crop failures, women prioritise providing for the male members and children
while cutting back on their intake, compromising their health and nourishment. This has further resulted in reproductive health
complications, a study reported that around 87 percent of a small sample of
agricultural labourers in rural India had uterine prolapse.[6]
Apart from producing severe physical discomfort, these health problems also
wreak havoc on marital relations. Because of their uterine prolapse, domestic
abuse from their husbands and in-laws is common, with some husbands even
abandoning their wives.[7]
Gender differences, combined with limited access to
natural resources, poor literacy, societal customs, lack of influence in
decision making and restricted ownership rights over land, make women
particularly vulnerable to vagaries of climate, which further exacerbates
existing gender disparities.[8]
Women, due to their domestic roles are often
required to do most of the primary tasks which include collecting water,
fuelwood, food and other resources. Each of these natural resources is
substantially impacted by the dry season and other climate-induced issues. The
dry season poses a serious obstacle to farming, resulting in limited water
availability, which further requires women to travel long distances while under
stress to fetch water. As a result, they are exposed to intensifying heat waves
their safety is jeopardised. They also have limited opportunities to obtain an
education or engage in income-generating activities. Additionally, due to water
scarcity, consumption of water applied for irrigation takes precedence over
household necessities and this, in turn, has significant implications on health
and hygiene.
Furthermore, women do not have easy access to
economic and financial resources. It’s pertinent to note that most financial
programs and services, in the rural sector, are intended to benefit the male
head of the family and they often fail to acknowledge the role of women farmers
having their own share of economic hardships and constraints.[9]
Though the government has made efforts, in
launching different schemes to make credit more accessible to farmers, such as
the Kisan Credit Card scheme and more recently, the Pradhan Mantri Dhan-Yojana
(PMDJY), women's lack of awareness aggravated gender biases, restraining a
substantial number of women from taking advantage of the programme.
PMDJY has been more fruitful as it has resulted in
greater financial inclusion by benefitting approximately 55% of rural women
with bank accounts, however, this doesn’t serve any purpose unless they use the
account. The gender divide in the use of bank accounts remains wide, owing to
rural women's lack of financial awareness, and this is another barrier to
obtaining financial resources. Reports show that only 24% of India’s population
is financially literate.[10]
This also puts women farmers at risk of losing their limited assets in the
event of droughts, floods, and other natural disasters.
In rural areas, whenever the crops are hugely
affected by climate-related issues, rural men migrate to towns or elsewhere, in
search of jobs outside agriculture, thereby leaving women stranded and burdened
with additional responsibility. This has also resulted in feminisation of
agriculture. Although things have changed since the 1960s and more women are
able to manage their farms without the help of men, the fact remains that women
still have limited access to credit and other resources, and own smaller plots
of land in comparison to their male counterparts.[11]
Further, women are mostly prevented from travelling, working or even finding
safety in other places, due to socio-cultural conventions and household
responsibilities.
Census (2015)[12]
reveals that only around 13.87 of rural women hold land. India also ranks 149th
out of 153 countries in terms of economic involvement and participation
opportunities for women.[13]
Men make practically all of the decisions in almost all fields, from household
to agriculture which also acts as a hindering factor. When women try to
contribute and share their knowledge, they frequently feel neglected. Society
continues to disregard their opinions, describing rural women as “farmwives”[14]
instead of considering them as actual farmers, and thereby further undermine
their capabilities.
Climate change just adds to the complexity of the
already difficult scenario by further marginalising women and making it more
difficult for them to acquire, own and control land or exercise decision making
power with respect to the same.
This reveals that rural women face gender inequalities
in terms of their social and economic position. Climate change just adds to the
stressors that already exist in women's lives, aggravating their vulnerability.
As evidenced by several reports, women are also more subject to domestic abuse,
sexual harassment and human trafficking during times of conflict.[15]
Fisheries
The fisheries and aquaculture sector is a high
revenue-generating sector providing employment to over 59.5 million people around
the world. With the sector being constantly affected by the dire effects of
climate change and States countering the phenomenon through restrictions on
fishing limits and practices, the sector still prospers, subject to persistent
challenges. One of the main reasons for this is the rate of renewal and regeneration
of the resource as compared to other sectors fully dependent on nature. Another
reason for this ever-growing industry to not fail despite challenges is the
ease to do business in the it and the wide scope of employment in it. The
industry employs workers in various jobs such as fishing, trainers for fishing,
sport fishing, food and meat processing units and marketing, distribution and
exports.
However, according to the Food and Agriculture
Organisation’s report,[16]
only 14% of the total employed persons in the sector are women. Women are not
only under-recognised but are also underpaid. This is substantiated with the
reasoning that they don’t possess enough qualifications and thus, they are
employed in unstable positions, particularly in the secondary sector where
tracing income becomes difficult.
India is the second-largest fish producing country
in the world, with a fish production of 11.41 million metric tonnes in the year
2016-17. It is a sector employing over 14 million people in the country, in both
the marine sector and inland fisheries. According to the Fisheries Statistics
India, 2020, women constitute 44% of the fisherfolk population as compared to
men who cover 56%. Even though women represent a huge portion of the workforce
in this sector, they, more than often, tend to go unrecognised and are ignored.
Women, in comparison to men, have numerous social and economic constraints
including lack of control and access to land, cultural restraints, dual
responsibilities of managing the household as well as economic activities while
employed in this industry.
Resilience to climate change highly depends on
capability to adapt, exposure and vulnerability. As this depends on awareness
of social and financial programmes and assistance, women face more concentrated
repercussions when working in the fisheries sector in India.
People who depend on fishing and aquaculture for their livelihood are prone to extreme climatic consequences such as cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc. Male monopoly over active marine fishing in harsh, unprecedented sea conditions lead to frequent deaths of such fishermen. Thus, women are put in a questionable position, as they are left helpless on the shore, with limited means to generate revenue for their households.
People who depend on fishing and aquaculture for their livelihood are prone to extreme climatic consequences such as cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc. Male monopoly over active marine fishing in harsh, unprecedented sea conditions lead to frequent deaths of such fishermen. Thus, women are put in a questionable position, as they are left helpless on the shore, with limited means to generate revenue for their households.
One of the most accentuated impacts of global
warming is the increase in temperature in the oceans which leads to loss of
healthy breeding grounds for fish and crustaceans which in turn affects the
quantum of production.
Women make up a sizable proportion of the labour
force in the processing industry. This industry, in most countries, pays by the
piece, i.e. the worker is paid for every unit they process. This further serves
as a disadvantage in addition to the already existing notion that the work
performed by women are less significant and thus, this system makes it tough
for fisherwomen to subsist in business. They are underpaid in comparison to
their male counterparts.
They generally do not take part in the fishing process
but play a vital role in post-harvest activities. As post-harvest activities
extensively depend on the quantum and quality of the catch, their wages
fluctuate accordingly, sometimes even threatening their job security.
Women's employment in the sector is highly volatile
due to the highly seasonal nature of the harvest and the deterioration of fish
quality as a result of disruptions in the food chain and plastic pollution.
The majority of those employed as small scale fish
vendors in rural as well as urban areas are also women. They have two sources
to procure the commodity, either from their families who are small scale
fishermen themselves or from large scale fishing companies. Small scale
fishermen already face issues like limited catch coupled with lack of storage
availability, and thus, women risk a backlash in the form of lower sales
and earnings. To buy
from large scale fishermen, vendors have to procure credit from moneylenders,
which additionally disadvantages women as they comparatively have restricted
access to such credit. Women are also engaged in seaweed cultivation and
protection of reefs. Due to the depletion of coral reefs and increased salinity
owing to warmer ocean temperatures, the produce does not pass quality checks.
The nature of work for fisherfolk coupled with
inaccessibility to roads for travelling compels them to reside close to
coastlines. In comparison to men who go into the ocean for active fishing,
women are usually employed at the coast, tending to boats and their upkeep,
stitching fishnets, and so on. Their livelihood on the coast is highly
vulnerable due to extreme weather conditions and an increase in the frequency
and intensity of natural disasters such as cyclones, tsunamis, floods, etc. In
coastal states like Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil Nadu, fishermen and women
are forced to abandon their residence and migrate to another state searching
for more stable jobs.[17]
The Sunderbans in the Bengal delta witnessed large numbers of fisherfolk
migrating into the cities in search of better jobs and skill development.[18]
This was due to a stark fall in the quantum of catch.
Men and women migrate generally due to various
reasons such as extreme coastal weather, flooding and shoreline erosion.
However, it is expedient to note that even if the push factors are common for
both men and women, illiteracy, lack of skills and social constraints push
women deeper into the depths of poverty and victims of sexual crimes.
The female literacy rate in India as of 2011 is
65.46% as compared to men, who have a literacy rate of 82.14%. With this dire
disadvantage already at hand, skill development for women becomes more
problematic and far-reaching. Women migrating to cities are mostly hired as
domestic help in houses and other establishments. Language constraints and a
new working environment make them more vulnerable to harassment and violence at
the workplace. With the fisheries and aquaculture industry becoming more
capital intensive, fisherwomen are prone to unemployment and forced to migrate
away from their families to sustain their livelihood.
As women face more occupational restrictions and
are socially restrained to work on the coast and not encouraged to perform jobs
requiring them to work on boats at the sea, their access to help during
emergencies is hindered. At times of natural calamities, the chances of
survival of women are lower as compared to men as they aren't familiar with
survival tactics.
It is pertinent that 100% of the population is
represented and involved in decision making bodies and credit societies for
comprehensive policies with significant impacts. This implies that women,
including indigenous women, who have intricate, grass root knowledge
about the natural resources they depend on for their livelihood and how to use
it efficiently and sustainably and their participation in future plan of action
is imperative. To throw some light on the ground reality and to substantiate
this argument, an example of the FISHCOPFED, the Central co-operative society
for fishermen and women in India. The Board of Directors of this national body
providing support to thousands of fishermen affected across the country, houses
only male members at this managerial post,[19]
portraying an outright underrepresentation of women. This is just one instance
of how women are restricted from taking up leadership roles involving multi
parted decision making. It is expedient for women to take up such roles and
address how climate change aggravates the already persisting issues which
further pushes them to a blindspot during policy making.
Forests and Protected Areas
The total forest and tree cover of the country is
80.9 million hectares, which is 24.62% of the geographical area of the country,[20]
and around 4,526 villages are situated in such forest regions.[21]
Villagers in these areas depend on resources of the forest for both
self-sustenance as well as commercial purposes.
Numerous research shows that men migrate more than
women from such villages to the cities in search of education, skill
development and better employment. As a result, women are forced to stay back
in villages and fend for themselves by relying on forests. Coal, fuelwood,
water and food are thus, important resources for most forest women. In many
localities, women are in charge of collecting these for sustaining their
families. They will most certainly be burdened by the arduous task of
transporting these resources over long distances. Prior to deforestation, women
would walk 1–2 kilometres for fuelwood. However, around 8 years later, they
were required to cover a distance of 8-10 km to obtain enough fuelwood to make
a single meal.[22]
Additionally, due to food insecurity, pregnant
women are unable to obtain the nutrition they require, and due to chronic
under-nutrition, they are more likely to face certain reproductive issues.
According to a study conducted in India, women who cooked with biomass fuels
were more likely to suffer from stillbirths in comparison to those who cook
with LPG, electricity or biogas.[23]
Various regions in India such as Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh have seen the highest number of recurring and seasonal
forest fires in the country which has increased 2.7 times compared to the
previous year.[24]
The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 acknowledged the link to this
phenomenon with climate change. With rise in temperatures, forests are more
susceptible to forest fires because of piled dry leaves and various forms of
anthropogenic intervention.
Forest fires, reduced rainfall and anthropogenic
activities such as clearing land for agricultural purposes, construction, raw
materials for industrial purposes and unregulated tourism amount to pollution
and loss of forest cover. While all this accelerates global warming, this also
leads to loss of wildlife habitat. Animals are forced to move from place to
place in search of suitable habitat and food. As women walk long distances for
the purpose of collecting wood and water, the frequency of such conflicts is
higher. Women and children are highly vulnerable in such circumstances as the
majority of them are not trained to defend and protect themselves.
Tribal women constitute half the population of
tribal communities in the country. They are known to have extensive knowledge
on medicinal herbs and crop plants which are crucial to maintain ecological
balance. For instance, in different parts of India such as the North Eastern
states, parts of Central India and South India, forest areas are cleared off by
cutting down trees and burning them. The ashes are collected as they are rich
in plant nutrients and the land is left barren for a year for the soil to
regain fertility. Opposed to this unfortunately common practice by farmers,
tribals do not completely fell trees. They retain certain horticultural and
agricultural species and preserve them in such areas, which help in protecting
endangered species.[25]
With extensive forest land evacuation plans
in the name of sustainable infrastructure coupled with lack of participation of
such indigenous groups in community welfare associations and other government
bodies, their homes, livelihood are threatened and their valuable knowledge on
sustainable living is disregarded.
CONCLUSION
Through this paper, the authors have delved into
the main issues related to climate change that women face in their struggle to
enhance their families’ livelihood. The following observations were made:
- Women
face more discrimination economically as well as socially due to changes caused
by climate change. Their domestic roles as primary caregivers often make
them disproportionate users of natural resources. They are underpaid and
have less access towards resources.
- Because
the majority of women in these sectors work in the unorganised sector,
where daily wages are determined by the quantity of produce or by the
piece/unit, their income is highly unstable due to deterred produce.
- Women
are underrepresented in decision making bodies and their access to credit
is highly restricted due to lack of ownership rights over land, social
norms and insufficient guidance and awareness on fluctuating markets.
Indigenous women and their knowledge on sustainably managing resources are
ignored.
- Lack of
specific legal frameworks and policies to educate, support and assist
women. Existing policies are generic and fail to cover distinctive
challenges faced by women in such sectors, leaving them handicapped
irrespective of the law upholding them as equal to men.
Sustainable development cannot be achieved without
tackling the issues encompassing climate change, which in turn cannot be done
without addressing the problems of gender inequality. Climate change and
inequalities based on gender are inextricably linked. While the climate crisis
continues to unfavourably impact them the hardest, more women these days are at
the forefront of climate action movements around the world, it has also
prompted them to claim power in the face of adversity.
With the planet being assaulted and provoked on a
regular basis, it is high time we view the issue of climate change through a
gendered lens. Providing forums for women to express their views is one way to
go about it. They should also be involved in policy and decision-making, to be
able to rewrite the rules of society. While we are faced with the prospect of
extinction, empowered women who are made part of the solution will ultimately
improve the environment and help us engineer our way out of this gradually
progressing pandemonium.
[1] University of
Alberta, what is sustainability?
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[2] Mary Halton, Climate change 'impacts women more than men', , BBC
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[3] Women Count, UN Women, https://data.unwomen.org/country/india
[4]
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[5]
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[9] D.
Fletschener & L. Kenney, Rural Women’s access to financial services:
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[10]
Ratika Rana, The Importance Of Financial Literacy: Why It Needs To Be
Included In Our Education System, The Logical Indian, (Dec 17, 2021),
https://thelogicalindian.com/education/financial-literacy-32666
[11]
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Gendered Impacts of Liberalization Policies on African Agricultural Economies
and Rural Livelihoods, . United Nations Institute for Social
Development, (2008).
[12]
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2018-19), Government of India,
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[13]
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[14] Seith
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[16] FAO,
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[17] Manish
Kumar, India’s ‘Ghost Villages’: A Changing Environment Is Forcing People To
Leave Home, The Wire, (Feb 07, 2022), https://science.thewire.in/environment/india-ghost-villages-changing-environment-forcing-people-leave-home/
[18] Sahana
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[19] http://www.fishcopfed.in/OfficersOfFishcopfed
[21]Forest villages, Ministry of Tribal
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Article Information
CLIMATE CHANGE: A DOUBLE BLOW TO INDIA’S GENDER STRUGGLE - By Safa Shameem and Sandhya S
Authors: Safa Shameem, Sandhya S
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2022/11/07
- Volume 2
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
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