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[1] WIPO Copyright Treaty, Art. 6(2) (2002), CDIP/4/4 REV./STUDY/INF/2 ORIGINAL: ENGLISH DATE: JUNE 1, 2011

[2] Adams v. Burke, 84 U.S. 453, 456 (1873)

[3] Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus, 210 U.S. 339, 350-51 (1908)

[4] PAUL GOLDSTEIN, GOLDSTEIN ON COPYRIGHT, 5 7.6.1 n.4 (3d ed. Supp. 2017)

[5] Copyright Act of 1909, Pub. L. No. 60-349, 41, 35 Stat. 1075 (repealed 1976)

[6] Copyright Act of 1976, 17 U.S.C. 5109 (2012)

[7] Copyright Act of 1976, 17 U.S.C. 5 117(a)(1) (2012)

[9] Penguin Books Limited v. India Book Distributors and others, AIR 1985 Delhi 29, 26 (1984) DLT 316

[10] Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (hereinafter TRIPS), art. 6 (1995).

[12] Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (hereinafter TFEU), art. 34 (1957)

[13] Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft mbH v Metro-SB-GroBmarkte GmbH & Co. KG. (1971).

[15] Eric Matthew Hinkes, Access Controls in the Digital Era and the Fair Use /First Sale Doctrines, 23 SANTA CLARA COMPUTER &HIGH TECH. L.J. 685, 721 (2007).

[16] Mai Systems Corp. v. Peak Computers Inc., US Court of Appeal, Ninth Circuit (1993).

[17] Vernor v. Autodesk, Inc., 621 F.3d 1102 (9thCir. 2010).

[19] Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi, Inc., 934 F. Supp. 2d 640, 644-645 (S.D.N.Y. March 30, 2013).

[1] Author is an LLM Student of Department of Intellectual Property Law, SOEL, TNDALU, Chennai.

[2] Joseph John, Worldwide Digital Population as of January, 2021, (Mar 5, 2021) https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/

[3] Peter Grabosky, Computer Crimes in a World Without Borders, (Mar 13, 2000) https://www.crime-research.org/library/Peter.htm

[5] Article 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950.

[6] Dr. N.V. Paranjape, Criminology & Penology with Victimology, Pg. No. 145, 15^th Edition (2012).

[7] Dr. Ajeet Singh Poonia, Cyber Crime: Challenges and its Classification, November-December 2014, https://www.ijettcs.org/Volume3Issue6/IJETTCS-2014-12-08-96.pdf.

[9] Hacking is an punishable offence under The Information Technology Act, 2000 with imprisonment up to 3 years and fine u to rupees 1 crore for unauthorized access. It is also punishable under Section 66 of the Copyright Act with imprisonment up to 3 years and fine up 2 lakhs rupees.

[10] Smt. Mathri v. State of Punjab., AIR 1964 SC 986 (India).

[12]Mohammed v. State of Gujarat., in SCR.A/1832/2009

[14] Section 67 of the Information Technology Act, 2000.

[15] Section 67 of the Information of Technology Act, 2000.

[16] Prakash v. State of Tamil Nadu., (2002) 7 SCC 759 (India).

[17] Section 67 of Information Technology Act, 2000.

[18] Section 4 and 6 of Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

[21] Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota, Study Material, http://assets.vmou.ac.in/PGDCL04.pdf.

[22] Justice Surya Kant, Cyber space and jurisdictional concerns, https://ujala.uk.gov.in/files/ch3.pdf.

[23] Daya Singh Lahoria v. Union of India., (2001) 4 SCC 516 (India).

[24] Nandhan Kamath, Law Relating to Computers, Internet & E-commerce, Pg. No. 23, 5^th Edition (2017).

[25] The People of the State of New York vs. Gaming Corporation 714 NYS 2d 844 (USA).

[27] Sumanjit Das and Tapaswini Nayak, Impact of Cyber Crime: Issues and Challenges, October 2013, https://www.ijeset.com/media/0002/2N12-IJESET0602134A-v6-iss2-142-153.pdf.

[1] Author is an LLM Student of Department of Intellectual Property Law, SOEL, TNDALU, Chennai.

[2] Joseph John, Worldwide Digital Population as of January, 2021, (Mar 5, 2021) https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/

[3] Peter Grabosky, Computer Crimes in a World Without Borders, (Mar 13, 2000) https://www.crime-research.org/library/Peter.htm

[4] Divya19, Cyber Crime - A Hindrance In Digital World, http://legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-3210-cyber-crime-a-hindrance-in-digital-world.html

[5] Article 21 of the Constitution of India, 1950.

[6] Dr. N.V. Paranjape, Criminology & Penology with Victimology, Pg. No. 145, 15^th Edition (2012).

[7] Dr. Ajeet Singh Poonia, Cyber Crime: Challenges and its Classification, November-December 2014, https://www.ijettcs.org/Volume3Issue6/IJETTCS-2014-12-08-96.pdf.

[8] Burnett v. George., (1992) 1 FLR 525.

[10] Smt. Mathri v. State of Punjab., AIR 1964 SC 986 (India).

[11] Pragati Ghosh, Short Essay on Cyber Terrorism https://www.shareyouressays.com/essays/short-essay-on-cyber-terrorism-458-words/121708.

[12]Mohammed v. State of Gujarat., in SCR.A/1832/2009

[13] Section 507 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860.

[14] Section 67 of the Information Technology Act, 2000.

[15] Section 67 of the Information of Technology Act, 2000.

[16] Prakash v. State of Tamil Nadu., (2002) 7 SCC 759 (India).

[17] Section 67 of Information Technology Act, 2000.

[18] Section 4 and 6 of Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

[19] Section 27 of Arms Act, 1959.

[20] Section 74 of the Copyright Act.

[21] Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University, Kota, Study Material, http://assets.vmou.ac.in/PGDCL04.pdf.

[22] Justice Surya Kant, Cyber space and jurisdictional concerns, https://ujala.uk.gov.in/files/ch3.pdf.

[23] Daya Singh Lahoria v. Union of India., (2001) 4 SCC 516 (India).

[24] Nandhan Kamath, Law Relating to Computers, Internet & E-commerce, Pg. No. 23, 5^th Edition (2017).

[25] The People of the State of New York vs. Gaming Corporation 714 NYS 2d 844 (USA).

[26] Sanjeev Kumar & Priyanka, Cyber Crime against women: Right to Privacy and other issues, October 2019, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344153821_CYBER_CRIME_AGAINST_WOMEN_RIGHT_TO_PRIVACY_AND_OTHER_ISSUES.

[27] Sumanjit Das and Tapaswini Nayak, Impact of Cyber Crime: Issues and Challenges, October 2013, https://www.ijeset.com/media/0002/2N12-IJESET0602134A-v6-iss2-142-153.pdf.

[1] William B. Werther, Jr. , David Chandler, Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility, South Sage Asia Edition

[2] Kramer, M.E. , Strategy and Society: The link between Corporate Social Responsibility and Competitive Advantage (Harvard Business Review, 2006)

[1] GSMA Connected Women, 2015, “Bridging the gender gap: Mobile access and usage in low- and middle income countries”, https://www.gsma.com/ mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/ConnectedWomen-Gender-Gap.pdf

[1] “About the Court,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/about

[3] “States Parties,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/states-parties.

[4] “Jurisdiction and Admissibility,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023,

https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/jurisdiction.

[5] “Complementarity,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023,

https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/complementarity.

[7] “ICC Trial Chamber I acquits Mr Gbagbo and Mr Ble Goude from all charges of crimes against humanity,” International Criminal Court, January 15, 2019, https://www.icc-cpi.int/PAges/item.aspx?name=190115-press-release-acquittal-gbagbo-blegoude.

[8] “Sudanese President Omar Al-Bashir Wanted by ICC for Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity,” International Criminal Court, March 4, 2009,

https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx/name=PR399.

[9] “The ICC and the prevention of Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/ prevention.

[10] “Justice for Victims,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023,

httpwww.icc-cpi.int/justice-for/victims.

[11] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. 2, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cppcg.aspx.

[16] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 7, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 90, available at https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/Documents/RS-Eng.pdf

[22] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Article 8.

[23] International Criminal Court,” States Parties,” accessed September 27, 2021, https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/states-parties.

[28] United Nations General Assembly, Definition of Aggression, GA Res. 3314 (XXIX) (Dec. 14, 1974), available at http://www.un-documents.net?a29r3314.htm

[29] United Nations General Assembly, Definition of Aggression, GA Res. 3314 (XXIX) (Dec. 14, 1974), available at http://www.un-documents.net?a29r3314.htm

[30] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 8bis (1), July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 90, available at https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/Documents/RS-Eng.pdf.

[34] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 12-13 (1998).

[35] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 12(2) (1998).

[36] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 17 (1998).

[37] International Criminal Court, States Parties, https://www.icc-cpi.int/pages/asp_sattes.aspx (last visited Apr. 11, 2023).

[38] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 17(1) (1998).

[39] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 12, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3.

[40] “Status of Ratifications,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-int/about/status-of-ratifications.

[41] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 17

[42] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 25.

[43] Benjamin N. Schiff, “The International Criminal Court: A Short Introductions,” Congressional Research Service, January 23, 2017, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44207.pdf.

[44] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 6, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3.

[45] Rome Statute of the international Criminal Court, art. 12.

[46] “Situation in Darfur, Sudan,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/darfur.

[47] Kirsten J. Fisher,” Ecocide and Genocide: Defining the Relationship and Charting a Way Forward,” Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 8, no. 2 (2017): 163-191.

[48] William Schabas, “THE International Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Rome Statute,” (Oxford University Press, 2010), 198-199.

[49] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 7, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3.

[50] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 12.

[51] The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, “International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/lubanga.

[52] W. Michael Reisman, “Crimes Against Humanity.” The American Journal of International Law 93, no. 1 (1999): 43-58.

[53] William Schabas, “The International Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Rome Statute,” (Oxford University Press, 2010), 166-168.

[54] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 8, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3.

[55] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 12.

[56] “The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/ntaganda.

[57] Bonnie Docherty and Tyler Giannini, “Drones and the International Rule of Law,” Harvard International Law Journal 54, no. 1 (2013): 1-75.

[58] William Schabas, “The International Criminal Court: A Commentary on the Rome Statute,” (Oxford University Press, 2010), 137-139.

[59] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 8 bis, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3

[60] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 15 bis.

[61] “The Crime of Aggression,” International Criminal Court, accessed April 10, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/crime-of-aggression.

[62] Jennifer Trahan, “The Kampala Compromise on the Crime of Aggression: Did States Bargain Away Too Much?” Leiden Journal of International Law 25, no. 1 (2012): 49-72.

[63] John Dugard, “The International Criminal Court and the Crime of Aggression,” South Africa Journal on Huma Rights 21, no. 1 (2005): 71-87.

[64] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 11(1).

[66] See, e.g., Prosecutor v. Furundzija, Judgement, Trial Chamber II, 10 December 1998, para. 151.

[67] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 12(2).

[72] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Article 12.

[75] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Article 12.

[78] ICC, Situation in the Republic of Mali, ICC-01/12-01/15, https://www.icc-cpi.int/mali/al-mahdi.

[80] ICC, Al Mahdi Case: First ICC Case to Focus on the Destruction of Cultural Heritage, https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=pr1263.

[81] Situation in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, ICC-01/11-01/11, Pre-Trial Chamber I (June 27, 2011).

[82] Prosecutor v. Abd-Al-Rahman, ICC-01/11-01/11-198, Pre-Trial Chamber I (Aug. 31, 2011).

[83] Situation in Libya, ICC-01/11, Pre-Trial Chamber I (Nov. 22, 2011).

[84] Prosecutor v. Abd-Al-Rahman, ICC-01/11-01/11-529, Pre-Trial Chamber I (Oct. 11, 2013).

[85] ICC, Libya: Ali Abd-AL-Rahman transferred to the ICC, ICC-CPI-20140121-PR963 (Jan. 21, 2014).

[86] Prosecutor v. Abd-al-Rahman, ICC-01/11-01/11-212, Trial Chamber I (July 15, 2016).

[87] See Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 17.

[88] ICC, Situation in Libya: Pre-Trial Chamber I reject Libya’s challenge to the admissibility of the case against Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and refers the matter to the ICC Prosecutor for non-compliance by Libya with requests for cooperation, ICC-CPI-20120401-PR773 (Apr. 1, 2012).

[89] ICC, Libya: Ali Abd-AL-Rahman transferred to the ICC, ICC-CPI-20140121-PR963 (Jan. 21, 2014); Prosecutor v. Abd-Al-Rahman, ICC-01/11-01/11-212, Trial Chamber I (July 15, 2016).

[1] Plumber, Mustafa, 'Victim' U/S 2(wa) CrPC Includes Legal Heirs Who May Continue Criminal Case If Victim Dies: Karnataka High Court, Live Law, (Nov. 14, 2022), https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/victim-us-2wa-crpc-includes-legal-heirs-who-may-take-over-criminal-complaint-where-victim-dies-karnatakahigh-court-214037.

[2] Scania Commercial Vehicles India Pvt. Ltd v. State of Karnataka, 2022 LiveLaw (Kar) 457.

[4] U.S. Department of Justice, Fundamentals of Victims' Rights: A Brief History of Crime Victims' Rights in the United States, (Nov. 11, 2011), https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/fundamentals-victims-rights-brief-history-crime-victims-rights.

[6] Office for Victims of Crime, Final Report of the President's Task Force on Victims of Crime, https://ovc.ojp.gov/library/publications/final-report-presidents-task-force-victims-crime.

[7] The Crime Victims’ Rights Act, (CVRA) 18 U.S.C. § 3771.

[10] Bhagwant Singh v. Commissioner of Police, 985 AIR 1285, 1985 SCR (3) 942.

[11] P. Ramachandra Rao v. State of Karnataka, JT 2002 (4) SC 92.

[12] Satyabhama School of Law Department of Legal Studies, Penology & Victimology, https://sist.sathyabama.ac.in/sist_coursematerial/uploads/SAL1053.pdf.

[13] Domestic Working Women’s Forum v. Union of India, 1995 SCC (1) 14, JT 1994 (7) 183.

[14] State of Gujarat v. Honourable High Court of Gujarat, 1998 7 SCC 39.

[15] Thakur Ram & Ors. v. State of Bihar, AIR 1966 SC 911

[16] Shiv Kumar v. Hukam Chand, (1999) 7 SCC 467.

[17] J. K. International Vs. State (NCT of Delhi), (2001) 3 SCC 462.

[18] Amir Hamza Shaikh v. State of Maharashtra, (2019) 8 SCC 387.

[1] Pursuing LL.M (Taxation law) in the School of Excellence in Law, Chennai.

[2] Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162 (1875). The Court while accepting that women are not any less than men observed that the right to citizenship does not confer the right to vote.

[3] It states that “the rights of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex”.

[4] In this regard, the Parliament has enacted the Representation of People’s Act, 1950 and Representation of People’s Act, 1951.

[5] Gautam Bhatia, ‘Ambedkar and the right to vote’, Lawmint (2019) available at https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/features/ambedkar-and-the-right-to-vote-1555040490483.html last accessed on 25.06.2022.

[6]N. P. Ponnuswamy v. Returning Officer, [1952] SCR 218.

[9] Jyoti Basu & Ors. v. Debi Ghosal & Ors., AIR 1982 SC 983.

[10] Chief Election Commissioner v. Jan Chaudikar, Civil Appeal no. 3040 – 3041 of 2004.

[11] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India, Writ Petition Civil no. 161 of 2004.

[12] Gautam Bhatia, ‘PUCL v. Union of India: The Supreme Court and the negative voting’, Indian Constitutional law and Philosophy (Sept. 28, 2013), https://indconlawphil.wordpress.com/2013/09/28/pucl-v-union-of-india-the-supreme-court-and-negative-voting/ last accessed on 27.06.2022.

[13] Popularly called as the Nelson Mandela Rules.

[14] General Assembly Resolution no. 45/111. This resolution was adopted on 28^th of March, 1991.

[15] Anukul Chandra Pradhan v. Union of India, AIR 1997 SC 2814.

[16] Praveen Kumar Chaudhary & Ors. versus Election Commission of India, W.P.(C) 2336/2019.

[17] Banwari Lal Kushwaha v. State of Rajasthan, S.B. Criminal Writ Petition No.234/2016.

[18] Hinduja, ‘Is the right to vote a fundamental right or a constitutional right?’, The Leaflet (June 12, 2022), https://theleaflet.in/is-the-right-to-vote-a-fundamental-right-or-a-constitutional-right/ last accessed on 27.06.2022.

[19] Bhakthi Parekh, ‘Denial Of Voting Rights To Under-trial Prisoners: An Unreasonable And Unjust disqualification’, Live law (Oct 18, 2021), https://www.livelaw.in/law-firms/law-firm-articles-/voting-rights-undertrial-prisoners-black-robes-legal-183859?infinitescroll=1 last accessed on 27.06.2022.

[21] Vakil Prasad Singh v. State of Bihar, Criminal appeal no. 138 OF 2009.

[22] Hussainara Khatoon v. Home Secretary, State of Bihar, 1979 AIR 1369.

[23] Joginder Kumar v. State of Uttar Pradesh, (1994) 4 SCC 260.

[24] Baljeet Kaur, ‘Prisoner’s right to vote: citizen without a vote in a democracy has no existence’, Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. 54, Issue No. 30 (27 Jul, 2019), https://www.epw.in/node/154673/pdf last accessed on 27.06.2022.

[26] Minister of Home Affairs v. National Institute for Crime Prevention and the Re-integration of Offenders (NICRO) and Ors., 2005 (3) SA 280 (CC).

[27] Hirst v. the United Kingdom, (2005) ECHR 681.

[28] Public interest Foundation v. Union of India, Writ Petition (Civil) no. 536 of 2011.

[29] Francis Coralie v. Union Territory of Delhi, 1981 AIR 746.

[30] J. K.S.Puttaswamy v. Union of India, Writ Petiton (Civil) No. 494 OF 2012.

[31] August v. Electoral Commission, 1999 (3) SA 1.

[1] Luiz R. de Mello, Andrei A. Kirilenko, The Rates and Revenue of Bank Transaction Taxes, OECD, Economics Department, OECD Economics Department Working Papers( 2006).

[2] 14 Impact of The Bank Transactions Tax on Deposits in Argentina, Ricardo Fenochietto, Carola Pessino, Ernesto Crivelli

[3] Luiz R. de Mello, Andrei A. Kirilenko, The Rates and Revenue of Bank Transaction Taxes, OECD, Economics Department, OECD Economics Department Working Papers( 2006).

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