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SAFEGUARDING MINORITY RIGHTS: CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS, JUDICIAL INTERPRETATIONS, AND THEIR SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT IN INDIA BY - AGREEMA DOODRAJ

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THE RISE OF DEEPFAKE TECHNOLOGY: SOCIETAL, ETHICAL, AND LEGAL CHALLENGES IN THE DIGITAL AGE BY - ANKITA KHAMARI

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^{^[1]} Choudhry S., Khosla M., & Mehta P.B., ‘Locating Indian Constitutionalism’, in Sujit Choudhry et el, (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution (Oxford: 2016), pp. 1-13.: With regards to the inclusion of writ jurisdiction in a constitution, it anticipates the need to address violations of fundamental rights that may arise in the future. It acknowledges that societal circumstances can change, and the legal system must have mechanisms in place to respond effectively to new challenges and evolving values.

^{^[2]} Manohar Sujata V., ‘Right to Constitutional Remedy’, in T.K. Tope’s Constitutional Law of India (Eastern Book Company: 2010) pp. 376-378.

^{^[3]} Ibid.: this power is now vested in the High Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of Judicature (Consolidation) Act, 1925.

^{^[4]} Ibid.: Sir Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar remarked: Our Constitution has gone further than any known Constitution in the direction of securing the effective and speedy enforcement of the rights guaranteed under it.

^{^[5]} Ibid.: Supreme Court exercises power of writs under Article 32 and High Courts exercise under Article 226 of Constitution of India.

^{^[6]} Mehta Bhanu, ‘The Rise of Judicial Sovereignty’ (2007) 18 Journal of Democracy pp. 70-83: In PIL cases, the Court relaxes the normal legal requirements of “standing” and “pleading,” which require that litigation be pressed by a directly affected party or parties, and instead allows anyone to approach it seeking correction of an alleged evil or injustice.

^{^[7]} Jackson Vicki C., ‘Comparative Constitutional Law: Methodologies, in Michel Rosenfeld & Andras Sajo, The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Law (2012), pp. 67-83.: There may be both ‘genetic’ forms of connections between systems, based on the influence one has on the development of another and ‘genealogical’ forms of connection, where one or more constitutional system(s) grew out of another, typically in countries emerging out of colonial relationships.

^{^[8]} Ibid.: Contextual Method seeks more elicit understanding of how particular paradigmatic social and political concerns shape or are reflected in the constitutional law.

^{^[9]} Scheppele K.L., ‘Aspirational and Aversive Constitutionalism: The Case for Studying Cross-Constitutional Influence Through Negative Models’, (2003) 1 (2) I•CON pp. 296-324: Aversive constitutionalism calls attention to the negative models that are prominent in constitution builders’ minds. Constitution builders may have only the vaguest sense of where they are going and how they should get there; more often, they have a clearer sense of what it is that they want to avoid. In this regard, the constitution makers of India had in their mind that they have to protect and enforce the fundamental rights effectively so for that they have to provide a wider ambit of writ jurisdiction unlike in the UK.

^{^[10]} Tushnet Mark, ‘Some reflections on method in comparative constitutional law’, in Sujit Choudhry, The Migration of Constitutional Ideas (Cambridge University Press; 2012) pp 67-83: Expressivism is a different, perhaps even more comprehensive, version of contextualism. For an expressivist scholar, constitutional law – doctrines and institutional arrangements – are ways in which a nation goes about defining itself.

^{^[11]} Oza Prachi, ‘Comparative Study on Writ Jurisdiction in India and the UK’, (2022) 5 International Journal of Law Management & Humanities 839-850.

^{^[12]} Forsyth Christopher & Upadhayay Nitish, ‘The development of the Prerogative Remedies in England and India: The Student becomes the Master?’(2011) 23 National Review School of India Review 77-85.

^{^[13]} Hansaria, B.L., ‘Public Interest Litigation’ in Justice B L Hansaria’s Writ Jurisdiction (3rd) (Universal Law

Publishing Co.: 2004).

^{^[14]} Jenks Edward, ‘The Prerogative Writs in English Law’ (1923) 32 Yale Law Journal 523-534.

^{^[15]} Aggarwal, Adish, ‘Right to Constitutional Remedies’, in Dr. Adish C. Aggarwala’s Constitution of India (4 th) (Amish Publications: 2014) pp. 129-146.

^{^[17]} Wade H.W.R.& Forsyth C.F., ‘Prerogative Remedies’, in Administrative Law (Oxford Claredon Press: 1994) pp. 591-615.

^{^[18]} Ibid.: They are ‘prerogative’ because they were originally available only to the Crown and to the subject These writs were granted to ensure whether public authorities carried out their duties or not and whether the lower tribunals were functioning within their jurisdiction or not. These were essentially remedies for ensuring efficiency and maintaining order in the hierarchy of courts, commissions and authorities of all kinds

^{^[19]} Smith S.A. de., ‘The Prerogative Writs: Historical Origins’, in de Smith’s Judicial Review of Administrative Action (4th) (London Steven & Sons Limited: 1980) pp. 584- 595.: SA de Smith writes, that writs cannot be simply understood as they were originally issued only at the suit of the king, but which were later made available to the subject. He said this view cannot be accepted without a number of reservations. Prohibition and habeas corpus appear to have been issued on the application of subjects from the very first; and although writs of certiorari and mandamus were initially royal mandates issued for diverse purposes of government, the result of applications made by subjects. It is nevertheless true to say that when, ‘prerogative’ it was because they were conceived as being intimately connected with rights of the Crown.

^{^[21]} This shows the origin of writs as a tool of royal authority, used by the monarch to exercise discretionary powers and issue commands. It was the tool through which the king’s will was manifested.

^{^[22]} They further write that after 1938 their name was changed to prerogative orders again except for habeas corpus. The modern use of writ is yet another instance of conversion of the Crown’s legal armoury into remedies beneficial to the subject.

^{^[23]} Seervai H.M., ‘Right to Judicial Remedies’ in Constitutional Law of India (4th) Volume 2 (Universal Law Publishing Company: 1993) pp. 1449-1467.: Later on, this power of writs had been inherited by their successor High Courts. Continuing with these remedial mechanisms to provide remedy in case of violation of fundamental rights, the Constituent Assembly adopted the writ provision in the Constitution.

^{^[24]} Hansaria, B.L., ‘Historical Bacground: Article 226 and 227’ in Justice B L Hansaria’s Writ Jurisdiction (3rd) (Universal Law Publishing Co.: 2004) pp. 1-12.: as they were established by issue of Charter they were called as “Chartered High Courts”.

^{^[27]} Ibid.: Since “general declarations had not much unless there exited the will and means to enforce them, the Constituent Assembly showed the will, and provided the means, to enforce the fundamental rights conferred by the part III.

^{^[28]} So, it was not merely the imposition and intervention of British rule and their law that was the reason why India has these writs and writ jurisdiction today. The crucial and strong reason was the protection and enforcement of fundamental rights. It was the ideology and aim of the drafters of the Indian Constitution that made them include the concept of writs and give special powers to the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.

^{^[29]} Sinha, Govind Narayan, ‘Judiciary and Environment’in A comparative study of the environmental laws of India and the UK with special reference to their enforcement (University of Birmingham Research Archive: 2003) pp 160-203.

^{^[30]} Ibid.: The High Court has several remedies available to it to overturn a decision made unlawfully. These include quashing order (to quash the public authority’s decision), mandatory order (or a mandatory injunction, requiring the public authority to carry out its duties), prohibiting order (or a prohibitory injunction, restraining a public authority from. Continuing to act unlawfully) and a declaration (stating what the law is).

^{^[32]} R v Inland Revenue Commissioners ex parte National Federation of Self-Employed and Small Business Limited [1982] AC 617 as mentioned in Sinha, Govind Narayan, ‘Judiciary and Environment’ in A comparative study of the environmental laws of India and the UK with special reference to their enforcement (the University of Birmingham Research Archive: 2003) pp 160-203.: in which Lord Diplock said: “It would, in view be a grave lacuna in. our system of public law if a pressure group, like the federation, or even a single public spirited taxpayer, were prevented by the outdated technical rules of locus standi from bringing the matter to the attention to the court to vindicate the rule of law get the unlawful stopped.”

^{^[33]} R v Inspectorate of Pollution, ex parte Greenpeace Limited [1994] 4 AII ER 329 and R v Secretary OF State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex parte World Development. Movement Limited [1995] 1 WLR 386 as mentioned in Sinha, Govind Narayan, ‘Judiciary and Environment’ in A comparative study of the environmental laws of India and the UK with special reference to their enforcement (University of Birmingham Research Archive: 2003) pp. 160-203.

^{^[34]} Human Rights Act, 1998: The Bill of Rights was introduced in the UK Parliament in 2022 to replace the Human Rights Act, 1998 but it was scrapped in 2023 (see: https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3227 ). It would have changed or removed provisions of the HRA and introduced a large number of new measures including new permission stage. Requiring claimants to prove they have suffered significant disadvantage as a result of a breach of their rights before they can take their claim to court.

^{^[35]} R v N Somerset District Council, ex parte Garnett and R v Somerset County Council, ex parte Dixon as mentioned in Sinha, Govind Narayan, ‘Judiciary and Environment’ in A comparative study of the environmental laws of India and the UK with special reference to their enforcement (University of Birmingham Research Archive: 2003) pp 160-203

^{^[37]} R v Secretary of State for the Environment, ex parte Rose Theatre Co [1990] 1QB 504 (as mentioned in the work) as mentioned in Sinha, Govind Narayan, ‘Judiciary and Environment’ in A comparative study of the environmental laws of India and the UK with special reference to their enforcement (University of Birmingham Research Archive: 2003) pp 160-203.

^{^[38]} Singh, Sukhwinder, ‘Sentry Approach of Judiciary for the protection of Environmental Pollution in India: A Bird’s Eye View’ (2019) 11 Dehradun Law Review 13-21.

^{^[39]} Hansaria, B.L., ‘Public Interest Litigation’ in Justice B L Hansaria’s Writ Jurisdiction (3rd) (Universal Law Publishing Co.: 2004) pp 528-556.

^{^[41]} (2000) 6 SCC 213 as referred in Rao Mamta, ‘Dynamics and Trend of PIL in India’, in Public Interest Litigation Legal Aid and Lok Adalats (5th) (Eastern Book Company: 2018) pp163-191.: A person, therefore guilty of causing pollution has to pay damages for the restoration of the environment and ecology

^{^[42]} (1996) 5 SCC 647 as referred in Rao Mamta, ‘Dynamics and Trend of PIL in India’, in Public Interest Litigation Legal Aid and Lok Adalats (5th) (Eastern Book Company: 2018) pp163-191.

^{^[43]} Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of U.P (1985) 2 SCC 431: “There was mining operation going in certain limestone quarries which causing environmental and ecological imbalance to the detriment of the welfare of the people Mussoorie hill ranges. SC considered balanced and resolved competing policies, priorities and issues of resources including the need for development, environmental conservation, preserving hills and protecting substantial business investments.

^{^[44]} (1986) 2 SCC 176 as referred in Rao Mamta, ‘Dynamics and Trend of PIL in India’, in Public Interest Litigation Legal Aid and Lok Adalats (5th) (Eastern Book Company: 2018) pp163-191.

^{^[45]} M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1988) 1 SCC 471 as referred in Rao Mamta, ‘Dynamics and Trend of PIL in India’, in Public Interest Litigation Legal Aid and Lok Adalats (5th) (Eastern Book Company: 2018) pp163-191: related to water pollution in the Ganga River, a writ petition was filed to draw the attention of the court towards the nuisance caused to the people by the pollution of the river Ganga. Even though there was government legislation imposing a duty on Central and State Boards under the Water (Prevention and Control) of Pollution Act, 1974, they were unable to take proper measures.

^{^[46]} Immediate action is to be taken by the Municipality to construct sufficient latrines and urinals for the poor. Directed that High Courts should grant stay under section 482 CrPC only in extraordinary circumstances as it stalled the proceeding taken to prosecute industrialists or other persons who pollute rivers. To take measures so that dead or half-burnt bodies are not thrown into the river

^{^[47]}Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996) 3 SCC 212: “The untreated industrial waste through chemical waste posing threat to the environment. The untreated water was allowed to flow out freely causing supply of water turning streams dark and dirty rendering it unfit for human consumption.” As referred in Rao Mamta, ‘Dynamics and Trend of PIL in India’, in Public Interest Litigation Legal Aid and Lok Adalats (5th) (Eastern Book Company: 2018) pp163-191.

^{^[49]} Pal Samaraditya, ‘Article 32’ in India’s Constitution Origins and Evolution Volume 3 (Lexis Nexis: 2015) 459- 498.

^{^[51]} Ibid.: With the doctrine of Parliamentary Sovereignty in England, in general no executive action sanctioned by an Act of Parliament can be void by a Court. In addition, Parliament may also be able to jurisdiction of the Courts over certain matters. In India, however, t itself enshrines in Articles 32 and 226 the jurisdiction to issue writ of the prerogative remedies in the Supreme Court and the High Courts.

^{^[52]} Supra note 12: In England, this had not been the case, until the reforms of Order 53 were introduced, highlighting the ability of the drafters to take the English idea and mould it to the India constitution.

^{^[54]} Hirschl, Ran, ‘The Rise of Comparative Constitutional Law: Thoughts on Substance and Method’ (2008) 2 Indian Journal of Constitutional Law pp. 11-37.

^{^[55]} Watson, Alan, ‘Comparative Law and Legal Change’, (1978) 37 The Cambridge Law Journal pp. 33-336.

^{^[56]} Legrand P., ‘The Impossibility of Legal Transplants’, (1997) 4 Maastricht J. Euro. & Comp. L. pp. 111-124.

[1] Law of insolvency and bankruptcy – S. R. Myneni

[5] Insolvency and bankruptcy code, 2016/liquidator/

[10] INSOLVENCY AND BANKRUPTCY CODE, 2016/ INSOLVENCY PROCEEDING/

[11] INSOLVENCY AND BANKRUPTCY CODE, 2016/INSOLVENCY PROCEEDING/

[14] INSOLVENCY AND BANKRUPTCY CODE, 2016/ INSOVENCY PROCEEDING OF CORPORATE

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[53] Pack the Union: A Proposal to Admit New States for the Purpose of Amending the Constitution to Ensure Equal Representation, 133 Harv. L. Rev. 1234 (2020), https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-133/pack-the-union-a-proposal-to-admit-new-states-for-the-purpose-of-amending-the-constitution-to-ensure-equal-representation/ (Accessed: 02 November 2024).

[54] GAHATRAJ, D. (2022) Quasi federal. Available at: https://www.iilsindia.com/study-material/810726_1618671525.pdf (Accessed: 02 November 2024).

[57] Constitution of India, Supreme Court of India, https://www.sci.gov.in/constitution/ (Accessed: 02 November 2024).

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[1] Human Rights and the Digital Age:
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[3] Cybercrime Definition:
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[5] Section 66 (Hacking and Unauthorized Access):
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[1]Faizan Mustafa, The Constitution on Minority Rights, The Hindu (Dec. 31, 2024)

[3] D.D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India (27th ed. 2024).

[4] Dr. Iqtidar Karamat Cheema, Constitutional and Legal Challenges Faced by Religious Minorities in India, U.S. COMM'N ON INT'L RELIGIOUS FREEDOM (Feb. 2017)

[5] Rangnath Mishra Commission Report. Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities, Government of India, 2007

[6] Sushil Kumar Singh, Constitutional Protection of Minority Rights in India: Legal and Social Perspectives (Dec. 2024)

[7] D.D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India (27th ed. 2024).

[13] Sushil Kumar Singh, Constitutional Protection of Minority Rights in India: Legal and Social Perspectives (Dec. 2024)

[15] S.P. Sathe, Judicial Activism: The Indian Experience, 6 Wash. U. J.L. & Pol’y 29 (2001).

[16] Sushil Kumar Singh, Constitutional Protection of Minority Rights in India: Legal and Social Perspectives (Dec. 2024)

[18] S.P. Sathe, Judicial Activism: The Indian Experience, 6 Wash. U. J.L. & Pol’y 29 (2001).

[21] The State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, AIR 1952 SC 75

[23] The State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, AIR 1952 SC 75

[25] Indra Sawhney v. Union of India & Ors., AIR 1993 SC 477.

[27] Indra Sawhney v. Union of India & Ors., AIR 1993 SC 477.

[30] Dr. Iqtidar Karamat Cheema, Constitutional and Legal Challenges Faced by Religious Minorities in India, U.S. COMM'N ON INT'L RELIGIOUS FREEDOM (Feb. 2017).

[33] D.D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India (27th ed. 2024)..

[35] The Ahmedabad St. Xavier's College v. State of Gujarat, (1974) 1 SCC 717

[36] P.A. Inamdar & Ors. v. State of Maharashtra & Ors., (2005) 6 SCC 537.

[38] P.A. Inamdar & Ors. v. State of Maharashtra & Ors., (2005) 6 SCC 537.

[40] Alekhya Reddy, "Literally Interpreting the Law: An Appraisal of the Literal Rule of Interpretation in India," Manupatra

[41] Bal Patil & Anr. v. Union of India & Ors., AIR 2005 SC 3172.

[42] Bal Patil & Anr. v. Union of India & Ors., AIR 2005 SC 3172.

[44] Rajat Agarwal, "Interpretation of Statutes - The Purposive Approach," Legal Services India

[45] T.M.A. Pai Foundation & Ors. v. State of Karnataka & Ors., (2002) 8 SCC 481.

[46] T.M.A. Pai Foundation & Ors. v. State of Karnataka & Ors., (2002) 8 SCC 481.

[48]"Doctrine of Harmonious Construction in the Interpretation of Statutes," Legal Service India, https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-6955-doctrine-of-harmonious-construction-in-the-interpretation-of-statutes.html

[49] The Ahmedabad St. Xavier's College v. State of Gujarat, (1974) 1 SCC 717

[51] The Ahmedabad St. Xavier's College v. State of Gujarat, (1974) 1 SCC 717

[52] T.M.A. Pai Foundation & Ors. v. State of Karnataka & Ors., (2002) 8 SCC 481.

[54] TMA Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka, (2002) 8 SCC 481 (Supreme Court of India).

[55] P.A. Inamdar & Ors. v. State of Maharashtra & Ors., (2005) 6 SCC 537.

[57] P.A. Inamdar & Ors. v. State of Maharashtra & Ors., (2005) 6 SCC 537 .

[58] Bal Patil & Anr. v. Union of India & Ors., AIR 2005 SC 3172.

[59] Bal Patil & Anr. v. Union of India & Ors., AIR 2005 SC 3172.

[60] Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India, "Prime Minister’s 15-Point Programme," Government of India.

[61] Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India, "Prime Minister’s 15-Point Programme," Government of India.

[1] Amy J. Schmitz, Expanding Access to Remedies, Voice, and Possibly Justice in United States Court Online Dispute Resolution (ODR), Oxford University Press.

[2] Amy J. Schmitz, Lola Akin Ojelabi, and John Zeleznikow, Researching Online Dispute Resolution to Expand Access to Justice, Giustizia Consensuale, 2021?.

[3] Ethan Katsh and Colin Rule, What We Know and Need to Know About Online Dispute Resolution, 67 S.C. L. Rev. 329, 2016?.

[4] Richard Susskind, Tomorrow’s Lawyers: An Introduction to Your Future, Oxford University Press, 2013?.

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[24] Wang, Guiguo. "Online Dispute Resolution: Challenges for Contemporary Justice." Hague Institute for the Internationalisation of Law, 2015.

[1] Faculty, P.G. Department of Law, Sambalpur University, Odisha.

[3] Jaiman A, The danger of deepfakes, The Hindu, January 01, 2023, Available at: https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/the-danger-of-deepfakes/article66327991.ece.

[4] Lalla V, Mitrani A and Harned Zach , Artificial Intelligence: deepfakes in the entertainment industry (June 19, 2022), https://www.wipo.int/web/wipo-magazine/articles/artificial-intelligence-deepfakes-in-the-entertainment-industry-42620.

[5] K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India, (2017)10 SCC 1.

[6] Gupta Indranath and Srinivasan Lakshmi, “Evolving Scope of Intermediary Liability in India,” INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF LAW, COMPUTERS & TECHNOLOGY (2023): 1-31.

[8] Chesney Robert and Citron Danielle, “Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War: THE COMING AGE OF POST-TRUTH GEOPOLITICS,” FOREIGN AFFAIRS,98, 147(2019).

[9] Paarth Neekhara, Brian Dolhansky, Joanna Bitton, and Cristian Canton Ferrer, Adversarial Threats to Deepfake Detection: A Practical Perspective, in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,923-932, (2021).

[10] Hwang Yoori, Ji Youn Ryu, and Se-Hoon Jeong, Effects of Disinformation Using Deepfake: The Protective Effect of Media Literacy Education, 3 CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 24,188-193, (2021).

[11] Chesney Robert and Citron Danielle, Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War: The Coming Age of Post-Truth Geopolitics,Foreign Affairs 98 147, (2019).

[12] Carl Öhman, Introducing the Pervert's Dilemma: A Contribution to the Critique of Deepfake Pornography,2, ETHICS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 22, 133- 140, (2020).

[13] Abdul-Rahman, Kabbara. Bots & Deepfakes, NSI Intern Integration Project, August 2021. https://nsiteam.com/social/wpcontent/uploads/2021/08/IIJO_eIntern-IP_Bots-andDeepfakes_Kabbara_FINAL.pdf.

[14]Chadha A, Kumar Vaibhav, Kashyap Sonu, and Gupta Mayank, “Deepfake: An Overview,” in Proceedings of Second International Conference on Computing, Communications, and Cyber-Security: IC4S 2020, 557-566, (2021)

[15] Mika Westerlund, The Emergence of Deepfake Technology: A Review, 9, TECHNOLOGY INNOVATION MANAGEMENT REVIEW, no. 11 (2019).

[16] Vig, Shinu, “Regulating Deepfakes:an Indian Perspective,17, JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC SECURITY, volume17, no.3, 70-93, (2024) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.17.3.2245 Available at: https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol17/iss3/5.

[19] The Information Technology Act, 2000, §67A,

[20] The Information Technology Act, 2000, §69A,

[25] Indian Penal Code 1860, § 509, 354,354A, 354B, 354C,354D, 375,

[26] Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986, § 2(C), 3,4,6,7.

[27] Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, §, 4.

[28] Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, §, 11.

[29] Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, §, 12,14,25.

[32] Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, §§ 154–176.

[33] Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, Rule 3(1)(b), 3(2),4(4), Gazette of India, Feb. 25, 2021.

[34] Khushi Saraf, Akshay Sriram, “The Diemma of Deepfakes: Expanding the Ambit of Right to Personality to Regulate Deepfakes in India, LAW SCHOOL POLICY REVIEW, 2024.

[37] Sandeep Singh mankoo, Deepfakes The Digital Threat in the Real world, 17, GYAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL, issue-1,2023

[38] Shruti Kakkar, Hindustan Times, Aug 28, 2024, available at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-hc-urges-centre-to-frame-law-to-regulate-ai-deepfake-101724853407493.html.

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