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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON USAGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING INVESTIGESTION IN CRIMINAL MATTER BY – SUKRITI SOMYA
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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON USAGE OF
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING INVESTIGESTION IN CRIMINAL MATTER
AUTHORED BY
– SUKRITI SOMYA
LLM II,
Semester III
(2022-2023)
Law, Science and Technology
Progressive Education Society’s
Modern Law Collage, Pune.
Abstract –
Society is making increasing use of
technology in everyday life such as computers, communication technology, the
internet, mobile devices, wireless networks and digital imaging. These
technologies represent huge benefits to society but also present new opportunities
for criminals and new challenges for the police. Many crimes now have a digital
element and the police service needs the knowledge and skills to disrupt,
detect and prevent this type of crime. Technology at the crime scene needs to
be considered not only in terms of what technology can contribute to the
process of crime scene examination, such as the use of miniaturised systems to
analyse DNA at a scene (lab-on-a chip), but also in terms of what technology
types may be part of the crime scene that can also provide evidence, e.g.
mobile phones. The crime scene examiner not only has to be proficient in the
use of a range of technologies that help with examining the crime scene, but
increasingly also has to be able to examine technology that is part of the
scene and that may yield vital evidence. Technologies used for locating
evidence range from light sources to detect finger marks, ground penetrating
radar to detect buried bodies and objects, sniffer devices for the detection of
hydrocarbons and accelerants at fire scenes to chemical enhancement techniques
such as luminol to identify and locate blood. The use of technology at the
scene is increasing with the introduction of digital cameras to record
evidence, as well as the scene itself, immersive imaging to provide panoramic
images of the scene which can be sent to the incident room for briefing
purposes, and laser scanning to accurately measure the scene dimensions.
Technology for the recovery of evidence includes electrostatic lifting
apparatus for the location and recovery of footwear marks. As these
technologies advance, new patterns of crime will emerge and new opportunities
for preventing, detecting and reporting crime will be developed. There is no
doubt that this will lead to an increasing proportion of crimes and evidence
types that are ‘virtual’ in nature as technology moves interactions between
victims and perpetrators from the home and the street to the airwaves and the
internet.
Keywords – Technology, Crimes, Evidence, Crime scence, Prevent, Detect.
Police.
Introduction –
In this article, we’ll
discuss how criminology and the criminal justice system might benefit from
scientific development. Technology has revolutionized the world we have been
living in. From every instance of opening our eyes in the morning, technology
starts playing its role. In fact, after the black swan event, almost everything
has been digitized. From education, shopping, food delivery, transportation,
and banking transactions, and even the offices have shifted to homes because of
the drastic and far-reaching effect of technology. Technology has changed every
aspect of life drastically. In such a fast-moving world of technology, it
is imperative for our police in criminal investigation to buckle up and use
technology to keep up with the current state of affairs. The police have
already incorporated many technological aspects but there is a need for
up-gradation every now and then.
Consider a scene of a crime. Blood on the floor, stuff
scattering, and a dead body lying there. A person has been charged with the
offense. He also disputes that. Now, several inquiries come up at this point.
What might have caused the accused to kill the victim? How did he kill him? Is
there any proof that the accused committed the crime? What was his mental state
and what happened? At this point, criminology begins to play a role in
determining the specifics and causes of the crime. On the other hand, science
assists in drawing a connection between the facts and the evidence, delivering
accurate, trustworthy, and objective information. Consequently, forensics and
criminology are integral to criminal justice.
It is undeniable that society is undergoing significant
technological change, and along with these developments, criminals have
improved their methods of concealment. Additionally, since everyone has access
to smart phones and the internet nowadays, the typical person has a greater
understanding of science and technology. Researching many ways to commit a
crime without being discovered is simple with the internet. The use of the dark
web for illicit activity is even more worrisome because no information is left
behind.
The development of technology has lowered the barrier to
crime. However, the same hands might also aid in the crime investigation. A
tool for better criminal investigation and justice administration, forensic
science is made up of a variety of ideas, including biology, sociology,
criminal psychology, DNA [1]profiling,
physics, chemistry, fluid analysis, handwriting analysis, and computer science. Law enforcement
officers should not be overwhelmed by technology. The presence or availability
of technology may enhance the investigation or provide information that may not
otherwise be available to the investigator. Although technology can provide
significant information.
Technology help in law enforcement?
India is a home for 135 Cores of people. The policeto population
ratio is currently 192 per lakh[2]
of population, which is quite less than the recommendation of the United
Nations which is 222 per lakh population. Due to the advancement in the world
and in steep growth in the field of technology, it is important for the police
to adapt to the changing world. With the changing world, crimes have also
evolved and have taken a new form like cyber bullying, theft of money, data
theft, ransomware, website spoofing, hacking, etc. With the ever-increasing
crimes in India coupled with such a low population-to-police ratio, it is necessary
to have the technology to fill the complexities and make timely
decisions. ICT[3] is the method to provide sophisticated
services by merging information technology and telecommunication. ICT is used
to store, retrieve, analyze the data. It also includes a mobile phone, video
conferencing, etc. These technologies are being used efficiently by the police
for law enforcement and can be constantly improved for good governance.
The new technology of crime mapping has been introduced and is
being used by many departments especially the departments located in urban
areas with huge populations. Delhi
government[4] has collaborated
with Indian Space Research Organization to start with new technology called
Crime Mapping Analytics and Predictive System. This initiative will use space
technology for controlling crime and maintaining law and order. The police officers
will be provided with a Personal Digital Assistant and this personal digital
assistant is connected to a storage processor that stores the data of
criminals. Every distress call will be converted into a digital message. This
technology will also be used to collect real-time data at the crime scene. For
example, the system will help to identify in which area theft is at a high rate
and this information can be used to deploy police in the area to stop further
cases of thefts.
In Odisha, commissionerate of police launched an app named ‘Mo
Saathi’[5]
for the State to ensure better law enforcement. The app is freely available in
the play store and is used to protect women. The app helps women who are stuck
in dangerous situations to alert the police, make audio and video recording,
and send it to the Modern Police Control Room. This is a clear example of how
technology has helped to maintain law and order and prevent crime against
women.
Technologies and Criminal
Investigestion -
·
Digital evidence-
Digital data are stored in various forms (e.g., random access
memory, read only memory, hard drives, and other magnetic or optical media) and
are subject to inadvertent alteration, degradation, or loss. Almost any
activity performed on a device, whether inadvertent or intentional (e.g.,
powering up or shutting down), can alter or destroy potential evidence. In
addition, loss of battery power in portable devices, changes in magnetic
fields, exposure to light, extremes in temperature, and even rough handling can
cause loss of data. Due to these factors, steps should be taken in a timely
manner to preserve data. Data and records obtained from digital media and
Internet usage can yield significant investigative leads. Digital information
should be
handled in a manner that includes a fully documented chain of
custody initiated at the point of seizure. Analysis of digital evidence should
be performed on a forensic duplicate by trained personnel while maintaining the
integrity of the original evidence. Federal, State, and local agencies;
government resources; private entities; or academic institutions.
·
Electronic
communications –
Electronic communications (e.g.,
electronic mail, text messaging, picture messaging) may be available from
Internet service providers, pager companies, cellular or wireless phone service
providers, public access (e.g., wireless hotspots, Internet cafes, public
libraries, academic institutions), and suspect or victim computers. E-mail can
be the starting point or a key element in many investigations. It is the
electronic equivalent of a letter or a memo and may include attachments or
enclosures.[6]
E-mail can provide many investigative
leads, including the following-
? Possible point of origin, which can
lead to the suspect’s location.
? Identification of the account, which
can lead to the suspect.Investigators can proactively communicate with a
suspect to gather identifying information (e.g., an e-mail can be sent to
communicate with a suspect and ultimately to establish identity).
? Transactional information related to
the Internet connection.
? Direct evidence of the crime (e.g., the
content of communications between suspect and victim may be contained in an
e-mail). For investigative purposes, the complete e-mail header information may
be needed for optimum results.
Online
chat and messaging - Electronic communication services allow
people to communicate in real time using a variety of applications (e.g.,
Internet relay chat, instant messaging, Instant Messenger, Windows Messenger).
These communications may involve text, voice, video, and file transfers.
Web
site records- Web sites often track the Internet
Protocol IP address, time, date of access of the user, and other information.
For example, PayPal® and FedEx® have transaction records related to the sale
and purchase of a product or service. Investigators should request these
records be preserved or obtain these records in a timely manner because they
may only be maintained for a short period of time.
Service
provider records Account records may be maintained for a
limited amount of time or not at all. With proper legal process and sufficient
information (e.g., username or IP address and date/time). The service provider
may be able to provide the following information, subscriber information (e.g.,
name and address), method of payment and billing information. transactional
data (connection log, e.g., location, time, caller ID of dial-in location, and
duration of connection to the Internet)content of communications etc.
·
Telecommunications
Public telephone networks provide
telecommunication services through a variety of computer and consumer
electronic devices like PDAs, cell phones, and others. Investigators and
telecommunications companies are guided by the authority and constraints of Title
III and the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994.[7]
Cell
tower data (cell site data) Cellular telephone tower data are
available to law enforcement and may provide valuable information regarding the
specific location of the phone of a particular subscriber being investigated.
These records are stored with the provider of phone service and generally exist
through one billing cycle.
Portable
communications devices These devices (e.g., wireless
phones, pagers) can store address books, phone lists, e-mail addresses, message
content, pictures, audio files, most recent incoming and outgoing calls, and
appointment books and journals, and can perform almost any other function found
on a home computer. Data contained on these devices may be volatile because of
battery life. Adequate protective steps must be taken to ensure preservation of
potential evidence, section on power concerns with battery-operated devices,
for additional information, or immediately contact personnel trained in the
seizure and analysis of this type of digital evidence for assistance.
Answering
machines, answering services, and voice mail Answering
machines, answering services, and voice mail can provide valuable information
(see chapter 2, section on answering machines and voice mail systems, for more
information). The legal procedure for obtaining the data from these sources
differs depending on the location ofthe information and the people who have
access to it.[8]
·
Video
surveillance-
With the proliferation of video surveillance
systems, it is increasingly likely that public conduct will be captured on
video. Video security systems have been put in place by businesses, government
entities, and private citizens. To discover these systems, law enforcement
officers should carefully look for cameras and inquire of the businesses if
they have surveillance equipment.
Security
and traffic cameras Cameras can be found in airports,
convenience stores, public roadways and intersections, businesses, bus and rail
depots, banks, ATMs, etc. These camera systems may capture activity inside and
outside the area where they are located. As with other electronic evidence, the
tapes or recordings should be obtained as soon as possible to ensure that the
data are not overwritten or destroyed. The information that can be obtained
from these cameras includes the following:-
? Presence of subjects.
? Vehicle or license plate information.
? Support of witness or suspect statements.
? Timeline of events.
? Commission of the crime.
? Subject activities.
·
Consensual
monitoring –
Consensual monitoring is the monitoring
of wire, oral, or electronic communication with the knowledge and consent of at
least one involved party. Some States, however, are more restrictive in that
they require the consent of all parties to the communication. Intercepts that
may be considered consensual monitoring in some States may require legal
process elsewhere. Consult with a prosecutor in the relevant jurisdiction for
guidance. Examples of wire, oral, and electronic communications that may
involve consensual monitoring include the following:-
? Telephone conversations—wire.
? Personal communications—oral (e.g.,
parabolic microphones, body wires).
? Computer communications—electronic
·
Tracking
–
Tracking systems provide law enforcement
the ability to track the movement or identify the location of persons or
objects. A search warrant or a court order may be required. Consult with your
local prosecutor for specific guidance on this issue. Examples of tracking
systems include the following:-
? GPS
- GPS satellites can establish the location of the item being tracked. Once the
location is established, this information may be transferred to the law
enforcement officer via radio frequency or cellular frequencies, or the
position may simply be logged within the device. Real-time tracking is possible
with some devices. Generally, the positions are integrated with a software
system that displays the track on a map.
? Directional
find (DF)/radio frequency (RF). Radio transmitters can be placed on or in
packages, persons, or vehicles, which can then be tracked in real time using
directionfinding receivers (e.g., LoJack®, BirdDog®).
? Commercially
available vehicle tracking systems. Some consumer products have tracking
devices built into them by the manufacturer. These devices are especially
prevalent in vehicles (e.g., vehicle black box, OnStar®). These devices may
record speed, location, or brake usage. They may also provide direct
communication with persons in the vehicle.Some States provide electronic
devices that allow passage through tolls. These systems capture the date and
time of toll passage e.g - Telco.
? Access-control
systems. (See chapter 2, section on access-control devices, for more
information). Access-control systems allow entry into secure areas and track
employee movements. These systems can record date and time of entry and user
information. These systems include key cards, retinal scanners, fingerprint
scanners, voice recognition systems, and similar items.
? Credit
or membership cards. Use of these cards creates a record, which may provide
information related to the geographic location and travel history for the use
of the card (e.g., hotel, gas, airline), as well as date/time/location of the
item purchased.[9]
Scienctific test and Criminal investigestion -
Scientific tests which are
generally applied for the detection of crimes and criminals[10]
–
(i)
DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic
Acid) - DNA
analysis, also called DNA typing or DNA profiling, examines DNA found in
physical evidence such as blood, hair, and semen, and determines whether it can
be matched to DNA taken from specific individuals. DNA analysis has become a
common form of evidence in criminal trials. It is also used in civil
litigation, particularly in cases involving the determination of Paternity of
Identity.
(ii)
RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid
) - Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is an important biological
macromolecule that is present in all biological cells.It is principally
involved in the synthesis of proteins, carrying the messenger instructions from
DNA, which itself contains the genetic instructions required for the
development and maintenance of life. In some viruses, RNA, rather than DNA,
carries genetic information.
(iii)
Deception detecting
test- Deception, in another word means lying, it may
lead to a serious aftermath in the enforcement of law and the proceedings in
the courtroom. According to DePaulo et al., deception is defined as a
deliberate attempt to mislead others. Hence, much effort is devoted by the
forensic psychologists in developing different techniques and methods to detect
lies.But, in a landmark judgment, the apex court of India has clearly stated
that DDTs cannot be administered without consent3.
(iv)
Lie-Detector Test – A polygraph, popularly
referred to as a lie detector, is an instrument that measures and records
several physiological indices such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration and
breathing rhythms and skin conductivity while a suspect is asked a series of
questions.
(v)
Polygraph Test- Lie
detector, also called polygraph, instrument
for recording physiological phenomena such as blood pressure, pulse rate, and
respiration of a human subject as he answers questions put to him by an
operator; these data are then used as the basis for making a judgment as
to whether or not the subject is lying.
(vi)
Brain-Mapping Test
(P300)- Brain-mapping
is a comprehensive analysis of brainwave frequency bandwidths. In this test,
forensic experts apply unique[11]
neuroscience techniques to find out if a suspect's brain recognizes things from
a crime scene which an innocent person's brain will have no knowledge of.
In brain-mapping, sensors are attached to the suspect's head and he or she is made to sit in front of a computer screen. The suspect is then made to see images or hear sounds.
In brain-mapping, sensors are attached to the suspect's head and he or she is made to sit in front of a computer screen. The suspect is then made to see images or hear sounds.
(vii)
Narco Analysis Test
(Also known as Truth Serum Test) - In the narco Analysis Test, the subject's
inhibitions are lowered by interfering with his nervous system at the molecular
level. In this state, it becomes difficult though not impossible for him to lie
.In such sleep-like state efforts are made to obtain "probative
truth" about the crime.[12]
Arushi murder case[13] - Rajesh and Nupur
Talwar, currently on trial in Delhi for murdering their 14-year-old daughter,
volunteered for narcoanalysis in an attempt to prove their innocence
(viii)
Voice Analysis Test- Voice
analysis test is the technology as a way for law enforcers to accurately,
cheaply, and efficiently determine whether a person is lying by analyzing
changes in their voice patterns.
(ix)
Finger Print Test - Fingerprint
drug tests analyze the sweat left
behind in the grooves of a person's fingerprint to determine whether that
person has consumed various drugs, as trace amounts of particular
analytes will be present in the sweat that can be used to infer this
information.
(x)
Ballistic &
Explosives Tests- The Ballistic and Explosion Test Facility is staffed with
experienced technicians who design and fabricate specialized sensors and data
recording devices to meet unique requirements. To measure, record, and analyze
data from ballistic and explosive events
Criminial investigestion and Forensic
Science -
The three fundamental
principles of individuality, exchange, and progressive change form the
foundation of forensic sciences. The principle
of individuality states that every object, whether natural or manufactured,
has a unique identity that sets it apart from other things and prevents
duplication. DNA and fingerprint are two crucial examples of this concept. In a
variety of criminal proceedings, fingerprints have served as evidence[14].
In State v. Karugope (A.I.R. 1954 Pat. 131)[15],
the Patna High Court ruled that the fingerprint expert’s assessment was
adequate proof of guilt.
Exchange principle: Edmond Locard
established this principle by noting that “contact exchanges traces. It simply
suggests that the offender either leaves his traces after a crime has been
committed or picks them up. In situations where a weapon is used, it leaves its
mark on the victim’s body. If the two parties get into a physical altercation,
the perpetrator may leave DNA traces on the victim’s fingernail or hair
strands. The relationship between the victim, offender, and evidence is
established by forensic science. Ballistic fingerprinting connects the bullet
casings to the weapon used to fire them. Used condom sperm aids in the capture
of the rapist. It is possible to match the suspect’s teeth to bite marks on the
body. In situations where a weapon wasn’t available, the type of wound can
reveal the type of weapon that was used. Blood, footprints, narcotics, and just
much any other material found at a crime scene can be used to infer
information. Most likely, everything in criminal inquiry talks, not just the
deceased.
Principle of progressive change: As implied by its
name, this theory holds that everything undergoes progressive change over time.
Time affects everyone and everything, including the offender and the evidence.
Handle everything that might be proof extremely carefully. Blood samples,
semen, hair strands, and fingerprints, for instance, must all be carefully
obtained and inspected as quickly as possible to preserve their integrity and
produce an accurate report. The sample’s quality must be preserved.
Other general principles of forensic sciences exist in addition
to these three, such as the laws of analysis, comparison, and probability.
According to these laws, a proper sample must be taken and examined, a sample
should be compared to other similar samples, and all occurrences, whether they
be certain or uncertain, are probable in nature[16].
There is a misconception that forensics is limited to only laboratories.
Forensics are of great assistance while understanding the circumstances of
death and collecting evidence. In the same way, digital forensics examines
electronic evidence collected in the process of investigation. Both aspects of
forensic involve a lot of technology for accurate results. These are useful not
only in criminal matters but also in an internal investigation in civil matters
as well.
Technical
advancement ensure faster investigestion -
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is now being used not only in
public places but also in homes to ensure safety. This is one of the most
widely and frequently used technologies. This is a very easy-to-use device,
where a camera is attached on the corners or on the traffic posts or anywhere
else, which records the events, stores them and can be retrieved later and can
be used by the police to investigate and arrest the suspect. CCTV cameras
greatly help to reduce the burden of the police and make the work of the police
efficient and fast.
Electronic Identification is a method through which the police
can identify a person easily. This identification can be done through a number
of routes. It can be through mobile number, Permanent Account Number, bank
account number, driving license, etc.
The Global Positioning system (GPS) is a navigation systemthat
helps in location tracking. It can track the device and its information no
matter where the device is located on earth. This can help police in sting
operations and better investigations[17].
The Government of Uttar Pradesh has developed an app called
Staqu Trinetra, AI-based app which uses machine learning, deep learning, visual
search, and face-recognition for assisting the Police department. This app
helps in storing and carrying information about criminals. It also helps in
identifying not only a criminal but also the gang members. Further, it provides
for information retrieval during investigations[18].
Contribution of technology in fair trial of criminal matters -
The use of technology can be of great
help in fair trials. In today’s time of the corona virus pandemic where social
distancing is advised, it is extremely dangerous to go to a crowded court.
However, because of this pandemic, many cases could have remained pending, the
piles of case files would have mounted. But, technology came to our rescue. The
court trials are even continuing in this pandemic due to the facility of video
conferencing.
The accused who are Non-Resident
Indians or on bail and out of the station are also sometimes provided with an
opportunity to present their side through video conferencing, thus saving time
and money. Along with it, the parties are provided with the fair opportunity of
trial.
It was also suggested by the former
Chief Justice of India that legal aid, which is an essential part of a fair
trial, means access to justice. Access to justice can only be truly achieved
when not only law professionals but also the common mass understand their
rights. This can be better achieved when legal literacy is preached through
technology. He suggested an app so that education can touch masses.
Comparative study –
When deciding whether expert
testimony is admissible in the United States, the judge must take into account
whether the evidence is reliable, effective, and pertinent. In the United
Kingdom (UK), support, appropriate competence, impartiality, and dependability
of the evidence are requirements for admissibility of expert testimony. One of
the requirements for the admissibility of expert testimony in Germany is the
applicability of the expertise in the relevant topic. German evidentiary
proceedings are governed by the principles of independent proof evaluation. The
court has complete jurisdiction over the entry and consideration of evidence,
except to a few statutory exclusions. German courts do not follow the same
evidentiary rules as US courts do, in accordance with the criteria of
unfettered appraisal of the evidence. For instance, hearsay testimony is
acceptable in German courts, and it is up to the judge to determine whether or
not the evidence is convincing. German courts do not use the "opinion
law," which forbids lay witnesses from making true remarks, or the
"best proof rule," which calls for authentic documents to support the
text's contents.In Germany, judges actively contribute to the gathering of
testimony, and the court's determination of whether evidence is admissible is
binding. In India, the admissibility of evidence is governed by the relevance
theory. According to the Indian Testimony Act of 1872, only precise facts and
facts under dispute should be the subject of evidence. As in the instance of
historical testimony, when secondary evidence of a record may be presented only
under such conditions, a fact may be true but not admissible. A text may be
lawful yet inadmissible if the statutory clause is not satisfied. It is also
possible that a text or an expert opinion, whether original or not, is
acceptable but that courts will not accept such documentation because it is irrelevant.
As a result, importance and admissibility are the standards in India for
identifying forensic evidence. In other words, if the forensic evidence
satisfies the condition of relevance, it is anticipated that it will also
satisfy the requirement of superior proof or have greater probative value, as
stated in the hypothesis.[19]
Conclusion
It is crucial to understand that new
kinds of trace evidence were used in the context of the scientific domains
mentioned above. These clauses have not previously been taken into account
since there was either no prior evidence or no way to assess the evidence.
Nowadays, humans produce both physical and digital signals as they navigate
through a hybrid world. We cannot imagine a day without the appropriate
technology. It is a dire requirement even in the criminal investigation by the
police that new technologies be incorporated. Many technologies are already in
use but constant up-gradation is required. Technology has been a boon but there
have been instances where gross misuse of these technologies has been carried
out. For the prevention of such instances, it is imperative to formulate
legislation. Technologies are costly and therefore, we should focus on research
and development in our own country. Technological advancements are useful not
only for the management of crimes but for crime prevention as well. It should
be noted that technological advancements have greatly reduced the incidence of
crime and the complexity of crime commission. These modern technological advancements
have, however, been used to reduce, manage, and prevent crime. As a result, in
the current world, the reach of technology is crucial in terms of crimes and
strategies for reducing them.
Bibliography –
Books-
Scientific Criminal Investigestion –
B.R. Sharma
Scientific Techniques in Criminal
Investigestion – Aoopam Modak
Forensic Science in Criminal
Investigestion and trial – B. K. Sharma 6th Edition Universal.
Webites-
- https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/investigative-uses-technology-devices-tools-and-techniques
- https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2112320.
- https://indiankanoon.org/doc/35565129
- www.researchgate.net/publication/317367356_The_Impact_of_Technology_on_Courts
- www.crime-scene-investigator.net/investigative-uses-of-technology-devices-tools-and-techniques.html
- https://investigatingsciencehsc.com/technologies/
[4]https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/delhi-police-to-use-space-tech-for-crime-control/articleshow/50887300.cms
[5]https://odishapolice.gov.in/sites/default/files/GoodWork/MO%20SAATHI.%20%281%29.pdf,last
seen 10/02/2023
https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/investigative-uses-of-technology-devices-tools-and-techniques.html
[8]https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/investigative-uses-of-technology-devices-tools-and-techniques.html
https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/investigative-uses-of-technology-devices-tools-and-techniques.html
[9]https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/investigative-uses-of-technology-devices-tools-and-techniques.html
[13]https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-shraddha-walkar-murder-nithari-killings-aarushi-talwar-cases-where-narco-test-used-to-dig-up-truth-aaftab-3003816
[15]https://www.forensicfingerprint.in/2020/03/indian-court-rulings-on-fingerprint.html,
last seen 10/02/2023
[19]https://www.ijlmh.com/paper/law-of-forensic-evidence-in-india-and-abroad-a-comparative-study/
last seen 10/02/2023
Article Information
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON USAGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING INVESTIGESTION IN CRIMINAL MATTER BY – SUKRITI SOMYA
Authors: SUKRITI SOMYA
- Journal IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Published 2023/06/14
- Issue 7
About Journal
International Journal for Legal Research and Analysis
- Abbreviation IJLRA
- ISSN 2582-6433
- Access Open Access
- License CC 4.0
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