“HINDU ORIGIN AND PERSPECTIVE: INDIAN CONTEXT” BY - DR. PUSHPA MEHDOO
“HINDU ORIGIN AND PERSPECTIVE: INDIAN
CONTEXT”
AUTHORED BY - DR. PUSHPA MEHDOO
Principal, School Of Law, Pacific
University, Udaipur
Abstract:
There was an era, before the arrival
of the Muslims, when the word 'Hindu' was not used for the followers of unanimity,
but the word 'Hindu' was used in the form of territoriality. All the people
living in India were called 'Hindu'. At that time the word 'Hindu' was also
indicative of nationality. It appears that the word 'Hindu' came into use with
the arrival of the Greeks. By the time the Muslim state was established, the
word Hindu was neither indicative of nationalism nor of regionalism. It started
being used for the followers of unanimity. All those who believe in Hinduism
started being called Hindus. Today the situation is such that it is difficult
to define 'Hindu'. No attempt has been made to define the word 'Hindu' in any
of the codified Hindu Law Bills. But law is a practical subject, so no matter
what the difficulty of definition is, it is necessary to know to whom Hindu law
applies. It is easy to say that Hindu law applies to all Hindus, but the
question remains as to who is called a Hindu. The answer is not by the
definition of us but by the persons on whom the Hindu law applies. Almost the
same has been adopted in the codified Hindu Law Bills.
A person who follows Hindu religion
by profession or conduct is a Hindu by religion. On this, the followers of
Swami narayan Mat sent a case of injunction against the Maha gujarat Dalit
Sabha. The interesting thing about this case is that the promoters of the Swami
narayan Sampradaya said in their case that the Swaminarayan Sampradaya being a
non-Hindu sect, the Hindu Temple Entry Act does not apply to them. On appeal to
the High Court, Justice Gajendra gadkar quoted freely from texts written by
scholars of Hindu religion and philosophy.
The followers of Arya Samaj believe
in the unity of God and in the Vedas. The promoters of all these movements
claim to recover the Hindu religion so-called or in reality from its decline or
for the revival of Hindu religion and this is the reason that the promoters of
these movements cannot be called anything other than Hindus. There are two
branches of Brahmo Samajists – the non-ritualists, who follow the principles of
Brahmo Samaj fanatically and who do not believe in idol worship, nor do they
believe in the rituals performed on the occasions of birth, death, marriage
etc. Ritualists believe in ancient Hindu rituals.
This is the situation in modern Hindu
law also. At one time it was expressed that Jains are people who have deviated
from Hinduism. The followers of Jainism do not believe in the Vedas and do not
follow the rituals and customs of the Hindus. The followers of Sikhism are a
sect of dissenters in Hinduism.
In the absence of customs, Hindu law
was applicable to them. In present Hindu law they are governed by Hindus only.
Like Jainism, Buddhism is an extreme religion, which gives more importance to
the negative aspects of life. Prior to 1955, it was a valid rules that the
followers of Buddhism are also governed by Hindu law, although if they prove
that a custom contrary to Hindu law prevails in them, they are governed by that
custom.
The current position of Hindu law is
that codified Hindu law applies equally to followers of the Jain, Sikh, and
Buddhist religions. The uncodified Hindu law is applicable to them only in a
modified form by the custom prevalent in them.
Keywords: Religion Hindu, Followers of Jainism,
Buddhism, and Sikhism, Converted and counter converted Hindus, Hindu by
declaration, Children of Intermarriage, Hindu by Birth, When the mother or the
father is a Hindu, People who are neither Muslim nor Christian nor Jew nor Parsi,
Tribes, Area of ??codified Hindu law
Today India is a country of diversity of
personal law. Each religious sect is governed by its own separate personal law.
Hindu law applies to Hindus, Muslim law applies to Muslims, Christian law
applies to Christians and Zoroastrian law applies to Parsis, and Jewish law
applies to Jews. Almost every community has some or the other religious
component in its personal law. Hindus and Muslims consider their rituals as
divine. Perhaps this is the main obstacle in the unification of personal law of
Indians.
There was an era, before
the arrival of the Muslims, when the word 'Hindu' was not used for the
followers of unanimity, but the word 'Hindu' was used in the form of
territoriality. All the people living in India were called 'Hindu'. At that
time the word 'Hindu' was also indicative of nationality. It appears that the
word 'Hindu' came into use with the arrival of the Greeks. The Greeks used to
call the people living in the valley of Sindh (Intum) river as 'Indoi'.
Gradually, this word started being used for the people living beyond the Sindh
river valley. The Muslims also gave the name of Hindu to the people living in
the Sindh river valley. By the time the Muslim state was established, the word
Hindu was neither indicative of nationalism nor of regionalism. It started
being used for the followers of unanimity. All those who believe in Hinduism
started being called Hindus. Even after the establishment of the British state,
the word 'Hindu' continued to be used in this form.
Today the situation is
such that it is difficult to define 'Hindu'. The truth is that there is neither
an exact definition nor is it possible to give it. No attempt has been made to
define the word 'Hindu' in any of the codified Hindu Law Bills. But law is a
practical subject, so no matter what the difficulty of definition is, it is
necessary to know to whom Hindu law applies. It is easy to say that Hindu law
applies to all Hindus, but the question remains as to who is called a Hindu.
The answer is not by the definition of us (Hindu) but by the persons on whom
the Hindu law applies. Can be known by their verification. This task is
probably not that difficult. Almost the same has been adopted in the codified
Hindu Law Bills.
We can divide the persons
to whom Hindu law applies into three main categories.
(1)
Persons
who are Hindus, Jains, Buddhists or Sikhs by religion;
(2)
Persons
who are children of Hindu, Jain, Buddhist or Sikh parents (or either of them); And.
(3)
Persons
who are not Muslims, Christians, Parsis or Jews.
·
Who is a "Hindu" [Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 - Applicability of
section 2(2)] - Who is a 'Hindu' for the purpose of applicability of the Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955? It is a question of law.
·
Yajnapurush Das Ji Vs. Muldas [A.I.R. 1966 Sc. , pp. 1119-1128]
Section 2 of the Act
specifies the persons to whom the Act is applicable. Clauses (a), (b) and (c)
of sub-section (1) of section 2 make the Act applicable to persons who are
Hindus by religion in any of its forms or Vaishnavas, Lingayats, Brahmins,
Prarthanas or Arya Samajs. Hindu in any forms of development and applies to a
person who is a Buddhist, Jain or Sikh by religion. It is applicable to any
person resident in the territory of India who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi
or Jew by religion. Therefore, the applicability of the Act is wide and is
applicable to all persons residing in the territory of India who are not
Muslims, Christians, Parsis or Jews by religion.
The word 'Hindu' has not
been defined either under the Act or the Indian Succession Act or any other
enactment of the Legislature. Earlier in 1903 the Privy Council had examined in
Bhagwan Kunwar v. J.C. Bose and others-
Act is in force”-
(1)
To
all Hindus, including Vir Shaivas, Lingayats, Brahmins, Prarthana Samajis, and
Arya Samajis.
(2)
Buddhist,
(3)
Jain,
(4)
Sikh."
* However,
this section shall not apply to any Scheduled Tribe unless so directed by the
Central Government by notification in the Official Gazette vides Article 366 of
the Constitution.
Religion: Hindu
We can divide the Hindus
coming in the first category into the following two sub-categories
(a) Who is
a Hindu, Jain, Buddhist or Sikh by religion by birth; and
(b) Who is a Sikh, Buddhist or Jain by conversion
or reconversion?
A person who follows Hindu religion by
profession or conduct is a Hindu by
religion.
It is so full of
diversity that it is very difficult to explain or define it precisely. Some
time ago, Shri Gajendra Gadkar, Judge of the Supreme Court made a bold attempt
to define Hinduism, 2 although this attempt was made in a purely religious
background. The question before the court was whether Harijans (Shudras) can
enter the temple of satsangis under the Bombay Hindu Temple Entry Bill? Shri
Muldas, President of Mahagujarat Dalit Sangh, gave a notice to the management
of the temple for the entry of the promoters of Swami Narayan Mat, who are
called as Satsangi, in the temple located in Ahmedabad. On this, the followers
of Swaminarayan Mat sent a case of injunction against the Mahagujarat Dalit
Sabha. The interesting thing about this case is that the promoters of the
Swaminarayan Sampradaya said in their case that the Swaminarayan Sampradaya
being a non-Hindu sect, the Hindu Temple Entry Act does not apply to them. On
appeal to the High Court, Justice Gajendragadkar quoted freely from texts
written by scholars of Hindu religion and philosophy (such as Radhakrishnan,
Tilak, Mooney William and Max Müller). He took the following quote from Tilak's
'Gita Rahasya'-
Notable features of
Hinduism are the acceptance of the Vedas with respect, the belief that the
paths to salvation are many and legal, and the understanding that the gods and
goddesses to be worshiped are many.
The uniqueness of
Hinduism is that it has always pioneered religious freedom. Its followers and
followers are free to do new experiments and develop new principles and methods
on new beliefs. After one movement, another movement has been born. New ideas,
principles, beliefs and methods have been propounded, sometimes some old
covers, beliefs and methods have been abandoned, sometimes old practices,
beliefs and methods have been revived. The promoters of some movements have
claimed the sanctification of Hinduism, some for its purification and some for
making it more versatile. Prominent in these movements are Brahmasabhaji,
Aryasamaji, Satsangi, Radhaswami. The followers of Arya Samaj believe in the
unity of God and in the Vedas. They are against idol worship and do not even
believe in caste-distinction. Proponents of satsangi school say that one should
lead a pious and pious life, as described in the Vedas, is the path to
liberation, K?ga-bhakti was philosophically the disciple of its founder
Swaminarayan Ramanuja. Brahmosamajis are reformers of Hinduism who claim to
restore Hinduism to its original purity. In most of the forms, this movement is
a rebellion against fundamentalism and orthodoxy. The promoters of all these
movements claim to recover the Hindu religion so-called or in reality from its
decline or for the revival of Hindu religion and this is the reason that the
promoters of these movements cannot be called anything other than Hindus.
There are two branches of
Brahmo Samajists – the non-ritualists, who follow the principles of Brahmo
Samaj fanatically and who do not believe in idol worship, nor do they believe
in the rituals performed on the occasions of birth, death, marriage etc.
Ritualists believe in ancient Hindu rituals. See Rani Bhagwan Kaur v. Bose,
(1903) 31 Cal. 11.
*Abraham
vs. Abraham [ MIA 199-243 ]
Followers
of Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism
Even before Hindu law was
codified, it was the same rule that the followers of Jainism, Buddhism, and
Sikhism were governed by Hindu law modified by custom. This is the situation in
modern Hindu law also.
At one time it was
expressed that Jains are people who have deviated from Hinduism. But now it is
fully established that the history of Jainism is earlier than the Smritis. The
followers of Jainism do not believe in the Vedas and do not follow the rituals
and customs of the Hindus. According to him, by renunciation of the world and
worldly life through penance, the soul can become divine and this is the
attainment of salvation.
The followers of Sikhism
are a sect of dissenters in Hinduism. According to the statement of the first
Guru of Sikhs, Shri Nanak Dev, God is one. The principles of Sikhism are
theistic. Before Hindu law was codified, the Sikhs were governed by their
customs. In the absence of customs, Hindu law was applicable to them. Now the
Sikhs are governed by codified law. Only a few subjects are left on which the
conventions still apply. In present Hindu law they are governed by Hindus only.
1
Like Jainism, Buddhism is
an extreme religion, which gives more importance to the negative aspects of
life. Prior to 1955, it was a valid rule that the followers of Buddhism are
also governed by Hindu law, although if they prove that a custom contrary to
Hindu law prevails in them, they are governed by that custom. Now the codified
law applies to them.
The current position of
Hindu law is that codified Hindu law applies equally to followers of the Jain,
Sikh, and Buddhist religions. The uncodified Hindu law is applicable to them
only in a modified form by the custom prevalent in them.
Converted
and counterconverted Hindus
A convert is one who
renounces his religion and accepts another religion. A person will not become a
follower of other religion just by renouncing Hinduism; Such a person may be an
atheist, but not a non-Hindu. Similarly, one does not become a Hindu merely by
professing another religion or having faith in another religion. Take the
example of an opposite situation, a Christian becomes so much an admirer of
Hindu religion and philosophy that he starts following Hindu religion, starts
doing Pravyanjana and starts worshiping in Hindu temples, even then he will not
become a Hindu. He will be a Hindu only when he becomes a Hindu by conversion.
One way to become a Hindu
by conversion is to convert to Hinduism through a conversion ceremony. This
ritual will be of that caste, creed, community or sect in which the person who
converts wants to join. For example, if a person wants to be an Arya Samaj
Hindu, he has to undergo a ritual of purification. There is another way to
become a Hindu by conversion or counter-conversion. Any person expresses his
desire to become a Hindu and lives like a Hindu and the caste, creed, community
or sect to which he has joined, has accepted him as its member, then he becomes
a Hindu. In such a situation it is not necessary to perform any rituals of
conversion or to do any purification.
·
Perumal v. Ponnuswamy [AIR 1917 SC 2352]
Hindu by
declaration
The Kerala High Court has
taken the method of conversion to Hinduism a step further. In Mohandas v.
Devasana Board, the court held that if a Hindu person declares that he has
become a Hindu and lives as a Hindu, it would mean that he has converted to Hinduism
and has become a Hindu. . In this case, a Catholic Christian named Jesudas used
to give devotional music in a Hindu temple for many years. After some time,
some Hindus stopped him from coming to the temple saying that he is not a
Hindu, so he cannot sing near the altar.
Jesudas filed this
declaration in the court, "I declare that I am a Hindu." On the basis
of this fact the court decided that Jesudas is a Hindu.
So on the basis of
judgments we can say that in the following situations any non-Hindu becomes a
Hindu by conversion
(a) if he embraces the
Hindu religion by the ceremony of conversion.
(b) if he sincerely
desires that he has become a Hindu and that he lives and
the class, caste or community to which he
has joined accepts him as its
member.
(c) if he declares that
he is a Hindu and that he is living as a Hindu.
Children
of Intermarriage
The child of inter-caste
marriage is called Varna Shankar in traditional Hindu law and comes under the
category of Shudras. Can we give them the benefits of Scheduled Castes by
calling them Shudras in the modern law. This question arose in Sapna Vs. State
of Kerala. In order to promote inter-caste marriages, the Kerala government
passed an act, under which provision has been made that the children of inter-caste
marriages will get all the benefits of the Scheduled Castes if either the
mother or the father is a member of the Scheduled Caste. The Kerala High Court
ruled that the children of such marriages could not be members of the Scheduled
Castes. This author submits that if Varna Shankar cannot be a member of a
higher caste then why should he not be considered a Shudra. Devadasis, no doubt
Devadasis are Hindus.
Hindu by
Birth
A person whose parents
are both Hindus, he will generally be called a Hindu. Similarly, a person is
also a Hindu whose mother or father is a Hindu, who has been brought up as a
Hindu.
When both the parents are
Hindus, the children of Hindu parents by religion are Hindus only. To be a born
Hindu in this category, it is necessary that both the parents should be Hindu,
Jain, Buddhist or Sikh by religion. If one of them is a Hindu, Jain, Buddhist
or Sikh and the other is a Sikh, Buddhist, Jain or Hindu, his child will still
be a Hindu. It is essential that both his parents should be followers of one or
the other Hindu religion (ie: Hindu, Jain, Buddhist or Sikh religion). It is
not necessary that the children of such parents follow Hindu religion. Even if
the child is an atheist, completely irreligious or anti-religion, it will remain
a Hindu. The mistake here is that he is a Hindu by birth, the question about
whether he is a Hindu by religion or not is secondary. It is essential that
both his parents should be Hindus at the time of his birth. If after his birth
both the parents or one of the two become non-Hindu, even then that child will
remain a Hindu, unless the father (or mother) has changed his religion under
patrimonial right. This parental right can be exercised by the father on the
legitimate child, after the death of the father by the mother. Only the mother
can exercise this right towards the illegitimate child.
The codified Hindu law
also has the same provision. Explanation (a) of section 2(1) of the Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955 states that any child, illegitimate or illegitimate, both of
whose parents are Hindus, Buddhists, Jains or Sikhs by religion, is a Hindu..
When the
mother or the father is a Hindu
The precedents of
codified Hindu law in this regard are so clear that Hatabandh Hindu law states
that any child, legitimate or illegitimate, either of whose parents is a Hindu,
Buddhist, Jain or Sikh by religion and who is brought up as a member of that
tribe, community, group or family of which that parent or parent is or was a
member, shall be a Hindu. Thus the following two conditions must be fulfilled
(1)
at
the time of the birth of the boy or girl child, one of the parents is a Hindu,
and
(2)
The
boy or girl child is brought up as a member of a tribe, community, group or
family of which the Hindu mother (or father) is or was a member. Any man in the
Nadar caste of Travancore can marry a non-Hind woman. After marriage, the child
born from that woman and that woman is considered a Hindu.
The main difference
between the uncodified and the codified laws is that generally the father (or
father) has the power to change the religion of the child while changing his
religion, but under the codified Hindu law, if the child is raised If brought
up like a Hindu, the child will remain a Hindu even after his father's
conversion. This is what is meant by the word 'member' in Explanation (b) to
Section 2(1) of the Hindu Marriage Act. Suppose, the child of a Hindu mother
and a Christian father is brought up like a Hindu, after that the mother also
becomes a Christian. The question arises whether the child is a Hindu at this
time? Even if the parents are non-Hindu, the child is a Hindu. But both the
parents of the child are non-Hindu, then still the child will not be a Hindu,
even if he is brought up like a Hindu.
Explanation (b) to
section 2(1) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 provides that the child is brought
up as a member of the tribe, community, group or family to which his mother or
father belongs. Suppose the son of a Brahmin father is brought up like a
Kshatriya, or the son of a Jain father is brought up like a Sikh, or the son of
a Jat mother is brought up like a Jain priest, then what? Will the child not be
a Hindu? In the opinion of this author, the child must be a Hindu, because if
the child is brought up as a Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain or any of their
association, community, caste-sub-caste, then he will be a Hindu, whether his
father (or mother) Be a follower of any religion of Hindus.
People who
are neither Muslim nor Christian nor Jew nor Parsi
Prior to codified Hindu
law, it was a valid rule of Hindu law that every Hindu was governed by Hindu
law, whether he was an Arya Hindu or a non-Aryan Hindu. It was not necessary
for a non-Aryan Hindu to establish that he had accepted the Shruti-Smriti. If
he is a Hindu - what kind of Hindu. Why not - Hindu law will apply to him, so
Hindu law was applicable to the members of the original Dravid, Chamar and many
tribal castes. It was assumed that he was or had become a Hindu, and then it
was not necessary to be a complete Hindu, it was sufficient to be a Hindu in
part.
Codified Hindu law has
made this rule somewhat more elaborate. Any other person who is not a Muslim,
Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion shall be a Hindu unless it is proved that
he was not governed by a Hindu before the passing of the codified law.
All those people who are
not followers of any religion will come under this category. Any person who is an
atheist, or who believes in all religions or who believes in a mixed religion,
will be called a Hindu. It is only necessary that he is not a Muslim, a
Christian, a Parsi or a Jew, and if he is not a Muslim, a Christian, a Parsi
Jew, he is a Hindu, it is not necessary to prove positively that he is a Hindu.
For example, an infant is found by a person lying on the road, it is not known
who the parents of the infant are, and then the infant will be a Hindu. The
same is true of refugees whose parentage is not known.
Tribes
Codified Hindu Law under
Bills of Codified Hindu Law shall not apply to the members of any tribe which
is a Scheduled Tribe under clause (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution,
unless the Central Government, by notification in the Official Gazette,
otherwise provides. Do not specify does this mean that those Scheduled Tribes,
who were governed by Hindu law before Hindu law was codified, will no longer be
governed by Hindu law? In the opinion of this author, they would not be
governed by codified Hindu law in the absence of notification by the Central
Government; but the codified Hindu law will continue to apply to them as
before. But if that caste has not been Hinduized then it will not be governed
by Hindu law.
Area of
??codified Hindu law
Broadly speaking, we can
say that the scope of codified Hindu law, so far as individuals are concerned,
is as follows:
(a) Those who are Hindus,
Janis, Buddhists or Sikhs by religion or birth, and
(b) Those who are not
Muslims, Christians, Parses or Jews.
It is to be noted that
although Janis, Buddhists and Sikhs are Hindus, they are not Hindus by
religion. Similarly, those persons who are governed by Hindu law, who are
neither Muslims, nor Jews, nor Christians, nor Parses, are not Hindus by
religion, but are called Hindus because Hindu law is applicable to them. The
Hindu codified law has earlier made a categorization of those persons to whom
the Hindu law applies and termed them as Hindus. Under section 2(3), the
expression 'Hindu' occurring in any section of this Act shall be construed as
if it included a person who, although not a Hindu by religion, is a person to
whom this Act applies under the provisions of this section. Applies on the
basis of the provisions (By virtue of the provisions).
The implication of the
above provisions is that a formal method applies to all persons who are not
Muslims, Christians, Parses and Jews, and to all those persons a name is
given—they are all Hindus. Codified Hindu law is that branch of personal law
that applies to followers of Sikh, Jain, Buddhist religions by religion and
birth and to those who are not followers of any other religion (such as
Muslims, Christians, Parses, Jews), to whom it applies happens, they are called
Hindus.
As far as the territorial
expansion of codified Hindu law is concerned, this law is applicable to the
whole of India.
Area of uncodified
Hindu law
We have seen above that
even before 1955 the term 'Hindu' was taken in a wider sense which included not
only Hindus, Janis, Buddhists and Sikhs by religion and birth but also many
other castes and tribes who were not Hindu by religion. . All those persons so
far as uncodified Hindu law is concerned, shall continue to be governed by
uncodified Hindu law, whether or not they fall within the categories of the
codified Hindu law classification. The Tamil Baniyas and Christians of Kerala
are still governed by Hindu law in matters of succession and partition. This is
applicable to Ram Kabir followers of Jalandhar district.
Conclusion:
That before the arrival
of the Muslims, the word 'Hindu' was used in the form of territoriality and was
indicative of nationality. By the time the Muslim state was established, the
word 'Hindu' was neither indicative of nationalism nor of regionalism. Today,
it is difficult to define 'Hindu' in any of the codified Hindu Law Bills, but
it is necessary to know to whom Hindu law applies. On appeal to the High Court,
Justice Gajendra Gadkar quoted freely from texts written by scholars of Hindu
religion and philosophy. The followers of Arya Samaj believe in the unity of
God and in the Vedas. Brahmo Samajists follow the principles of Brahma Samaj
fanatically, while Ritualists believe in ancient Hindu rituals. The followers
of Jainism and Sikhism are governed by Hindus only, while Buddhism is an
extreme religion that gives more importance to the negative aspects of life.
The current position of Hindu law is that codified Hindu law applies equally to
followers of the Jain, Sikh, and Buddhist religions, while uncodified Hindu law
is applicable to them only in a modified form.
India is a country of
diversity of personal law, with Hindu law applied to Hindus, Muslim law applied
to Muslims, Christian law applied to Christians, Zoroastrian law applied to
Parsis, and Jewish law applied to Jews. Before the arrival of the Muslims, the
word 'Hindu' was used in the form of territoriality and was indicative of
nationality. After the establishment of the British state, the word 'Hindu'
continued to be used in this form. It is difficult to define 'Hindu' as there
is neither an exact definition nor is it possible to give it. The most
important details in this text are the three main categories of persons to whom
Hindu law applies: those who are Hindus, Jains, Buddhists or Sikhs by religion,
those who are children of Hindu, Jain, Buddhist or Sikh parents, and those who
are not Muslims, Christians, Parsis or Jews. Section 2 of the Hindu Marriage
Act, 1955 specifies the persons to whom the Act is applicable, and the
applicability of the Act is wide and is applicable to all persons residing in
the territory of India.
Hinduism is a religion
that is divided into two sub-categories: who is a Hindu by birth and who is a
Sikh, Buddhist or Jain by conversion or reconversion. Shri Gajendra Gadkar,
Judge of the Supreme Court, attempted to define Hinduism by arguing that
Harijans (Shudras) cannot enter the temple of satsangis under the Bombay Hindu
Temple Entry Bill. He also quoted from texts written by scholars of Hindu
religion and philosophy, such as Radhakrishnan, Tilak, Mooney William and Max
Muller. Hinduism has always pioneered religious freedom and its followers are
free to do new experiments and develop new principles and methods on new
beliefs. Arya Samaj, Brahmosamajis, and Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism are all
Hindu religions. Arya Samaj believes in the unity of God and the Vedas, while
Brahmosamajis claim to restore Hinduism to its original purity. Ritualists
believe in ancient Hindu rituals, while non-ritualizes follow the principles of
Brahma Samaj fanatically.
REFERENCES:
·
Ayalon,
David (1986), Studies in Islamic History and Civilizations, BRILL, ISBN
965-264-014-X
·
Avari,
Burjor (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power
and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-58061-8.
·
Fleming,
Benjamin J. (2009), "Mapping Sacred Geography in Medieval India: The Case
of the Twelve "Jyotirli?gas"", International Journal of Hindu
Studies, 13 (1): 51–81, doi:10.1007/s11407-009-9069-0, S2CID 145421231
·
Flood,
Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
·
Flood,
Gavin (2006), The Tantric Body. The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion, I.B
Taurus
·
Flood,
Gavin, ed. (2008), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd., ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0
·
Jha,
D. N. (2009), Rethinking Hindu Identity, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-84553-459-2
·
Lorenzen,
David N. (October 1999), "Who Invented Hinduism?", Comparative
Studies in Society and History, Cambridge University Press, 41 (4): 630–659,
doi:10.1017/s0010417599003084, JSTOR 179424, S2CID 247327484
·
Lorenzen,
David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen
(ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp.
1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2
·
Lorenzen,
David N. (2010), "Hindus and others", in Esther Bloch; Marianne
Keppens; Rajaram Hegde (eds.), Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction
of Hinduism, Routledge, pp. 25–40, ISBN 978-1-135-18279-3
·
Sridharan,
Kripa (2000), "Grasping the Nettle: Indian Nationalism and
Globalization", in Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Nationalism and globalization:
east and west, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 294–318, ISBN
978-981-230-078-2, ... The term Hindutva equates religious and national
identity: an Indian is a Hindu ... 'the Indian Muslims are not aliens
ethnically. They are flesh of our flesh and blood of our blood' ...
·
Sharma,
Arvind (2008), "The Hermeneutics of the word "Religion" and Its
Implications for the World of Indian Religions", in Sherma, Rita; Sharma,
Arvind (eds.), Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons,
Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 19–32, ISBN 978-1-4020-8192-7
·
Smith,
Wilfred Cantwell (1981), On Understanding Islam: Selected Studies, Walter de
Gruyter, ISBN 978-90-279-3448-2
·
von
Stietencron, Heinrich (2005), "Hinduism: On the Proper Use of a Deceptive
Term", Hindu Myth, Hindu History, Religion, Art, and Politics, Orient
Blackswan, pp. 227–248, ISBN 978-81-7824-122-7
·
Thapar,
Romila (1989), "Imagined religious communities? Ancient history and the
modern search for a Hindu identity", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge
University Press, 23 (2): 209–231, doi:10.1017/S0026749X00001049, JSTOR 312738,
S2CID 145293468
·
Thapar,
Romila (1993), "Imagined religious communities?", Interpreting Early
India, Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 60–88
·
Thapar,
Romula (2003), The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300,
Penguin Books India, ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2